Mariyam Munir
University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
Correspondence to: mariyam.munir1296@gmail.com
Additional information
- Ethical approval: N/a
- Consent: N/a
- Funding: No industry funding
- Conflicts of interest: N/a
- Author contribution: Mariyam Munir – Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, review and editing
- Guarantor: Mariyam Munir
- Provenance and peer-review:
Commissioned and externally peer-reviewed - Data availability statement: N/a
Keywords: Bioactive packaging, Agricultural residues, Antimicrobial properties, Biodegradable materials, Circular economy.
Peer Review
Received: 12 September 2024
Revised: 5 December 2024
Accepted: 8 December 2024
Published: 26 December 2024
Abstract
As a result of the growing concern about the use of conventional plastic packaging that is not biodegradable, there has been a search for bioactive packaging materials from agricultural food residues. This review gives an idea of the development of bioactive packaging from agricultural residues, its properties, and its various uses. Fruit skin, rice husk, and wheat bran are some of the agricultural by-products that possess natural antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds, which can be used in food preservation. Some recent studies have shown that these materials can serve to increase the shelf life of perishable food products and as well minimize the negative impact on the environment through biodegradability and sustainability. The mechanical, barrier, and functional characteristics of bioactive packaging materials are discussed, focusing on the cost, fabrication issues, and potential for large-scale production. This review also includes a discussion of the most recent advancements in processing technologies, the application of biopolymer reinforcement and the market prospects for these environmentally friendly options. The knowledge presented in this research adds to the current literature on sustainable packaging with a focus on the potential of using agricultural waste in managing waste and in preserving food products.
Introduction
Bioactive packaging is a breakthrough in food packaging and conservation as well as in environmental conservation.1 Bioactive materials are developed in such a way that they can have a positive impact on the food product and it includes increasing shelf life, preventing microbial growth, and even enhancing nutritional value.2 This is useful especially in the face of increasing food waste globally and pollution resulting from the use of conventional plastic packaging. This is because the application of bioactive packaging enhances sustainable food packaging in the food industry, the safety of food, and the minimization of food waste. These are the waste materials that result from agriculture and food production, such as straws of wheat, husks of rice, cob of corn, peels of fruits, and stalks of vegetables.2–4 Conventionally, these materials are overlooked as waste, but they are yet a rich source for the synthesis of bioactive packaging materials. This article aims to discuss the potential of agricultural residues that contain a high number of organic compounds and fibers, and may have inherent antimicrobial and antioxidant properties for the production of high-value-added products. These residues can be valorized to produce bioactive packaging, which not only solves the problem of waste management but also supports circular economy by cycling the organic material back into the production process (Figures 1–5).
Environmental Impact of Conventional Packaging
Conventional packaging has resulted in massive environmental problems such as plastic pollution of water bodies and land as well as the carbon footprint of plastic production and disposal.5 Due to the efforts of the government and industries to look for environment-friendly products, there is a rising demand for biodegradable and renewable materials. There is a potential for biological packaging derived from agricultural by-products because not only does it decrease the use of non-renewable resources but it also biodegrades without leaving hazardous residues.6
Objectives and Relevance
The main purpose of this article is to present the current situation in the field of bioactive packaging using agricultural food residues as well as the directions of further research. It will include the latest developments, issues concerning the processing and large-scale production, and the prospects for marketing these materials. It is also timely given that there is a growing global concern in sustainability, management of waste, and the shift toward circular economy systems. In describing the innovative use of agricultural residues, the article will extend current knowledge on the possibilities of the material in the packaging sector and the solution to environmental problems.
Challenges
Standardization and Processing
Agricultural residues have a high potential for being used in bioactive packaging; however, several issues have to be resolved in order for this to be commercially feasible. One of the most significant challenges is the inconsistency of the characteristics of the agricultural residues and the variability of their quality that may directly influence the quality of the final packaging material.7 However, the techniques that are used to process the bioactive residues for the formation of films or coatings also need further study for the best results.8 Such methods often require the use of extraction and modification processes to allow the bioactive residues to be incorporated into the packaging materials while at the same time meeting the necessary mechanical and barrier properties. However, there is the problem of scalability; while many of the techniques that have been found to be effective in the lab may not be as effective when scaled up to an industrial level.
Non-biodegradable Plastic Packaging
One of the biggest environmental issues of the twenty- first century is the use of the non-biodegradable plastic packaging.9 Plastic waste has become a problem that affects different environments including the aquatic and the terrestrial ecosystems with adverse effects on the environment. In addition, the environmental impact of the production and disposal of conventional plastic cannot be overlooked as they have a large carbon footprint, which calls for the need to seek green alternatives.10 This is especially so in industries such as food packaging that rely heavily on plastics and generate huge amounts of plastic waste. This has created awareness that there is a need to come up with materials that can help in maintaining the environment free from pollution especially when it comes to food preservation and safety.
Economic Viability and Cost Considerations
One more problem that should be solved is the possibility of producing bioactive packaging from agricultural waste at affordable prices. This is because, despite the fact that the raw materials in the form of residues and waste are cheap or even free, technological and operational means of transforming them into functional packaging are costly. These new materials may not be easily accepted by industries if the cost of production is still high as compared to conventional packaging materials. Nevertheless, owing to the ever-increasing pressure from the government and the consumers to embrace sustainable operations, the economics of the situation are shifting. Such motivators as economic incentives in the form of subsidies for sustainable materials and increased costs of managing plastic waste and carbon emissions are promoting the use of bioactive packaging made from agricultural residues.11
Regulatory Hurdles and Market Adoption
The use of bioactive packaging from agricultural residue also has a regulatory issue. In many parts of the world, food packaging materials which are newly introduced in the market must be subjected to various tests for safety so that they do not have adverse effects on the health of consumers.12 This is a rather complex procedure, which may take a lot of time and money, which may result in a considerable delay in the new packaging materials coming to the market. Also, consumer acceptance is a major factor that influences the effectiveness of bioactive packaging.13 This article also recognizes that the perception that the public has concerning food safety especially when the food is produced from waste can affect the demand for the product in the market. Hence, raising consumers’ awareness of the safety, efficacy, and eco-friendliness of agricultural-residue-based packaging will be crucial for its popularity.
Recent Research and Evidence
Bioactive Properties
Another advantage of incorporating agricultural residues in bioactive packaging includes the fact that the residues possess bioactive attributes in their original form. Some of the recent research has shown that these residues are also full of compounds that can play a part in preserving food.14 For example, mango peel which is a part of food waste is rich in polyphenols and flavonoids which have high antioxidant properties that help to prevent the oxidation of food products thus increasing their shelf life. The antimicrobial activity of pomegranate peel extracts has been reported to be active against food spoilage and foodborne pathogenic bacteria including E. coli and Salmonella.16 Such antimicrobial and anti-spoilage properties can be incorporated in the packaging materials in the form of films or coatings that not only provide mechanical barrier function but also actively inhibit microbial growth and delay spoilage of food products.15
Case Studies and Innovations
Several case studies are presented to demonstrate the potential of using agricultural residues for the development of bioactive packaging materials. A specific case in point is the production of bioactive films from pineapple peel residue.17 Scientists have been able to turn pineapple peels into biopolymer-based films, which also possess antimicrobial characteristics. These films were applied in the packing of fresh-cut fruits and the results showed that the microbial growth was greatly reduced and the quality of fruits packed in these films was enhanced.18 Likewise, wheat bran has been employed in the development of bioactive coatings for bakery products in order to prevent the growth of mold and thus extend the shelf life of the products. Another innovation applies rice husk silica nanoparticles in bioactive packaging. Rice husk is one of the most abundant agricultural wastes in rice-cultivating areas, and it has high silica content.19 The silica was hence extracted and refined into nanoparticles, and the films that have been created are stronger mechanically and have antibacterial properties. It is also quite useful in the preservation of food products such as meat and dairy products that have a very short shelf life due to the chances of microbial growth.20
Comparison
When compared with the currently used bioactive packaging materials like chitosan, cellulose, and synthetic-polymer-based packaging, agricultural- residue-based packaging has the following merits and demerits. These materials usually need more chemical treatment or the incorporation of synthetic bioactive additives to impart the required usefulness.21 On the other hand, agricultural residues are already rich in bioactive compounds which can be easily integrated into the packaging system with minimal or no further processing or addition of chemical components. This makes agricultural-residue-based packaging a more sustainable option than the conventional ones. Nevertheless, chitosan or synthetic bioactive polymers, conventional materials have better mechanical properties and stability than farm-residue-based films.22 Therefore, efforts are being made toward enhancing the mechanical characteristics of the residue-derived films by the incorporation of biopolymer blends, nanomaterials, and cross-linking agents. The aim is to design and produce bioactive packaging that has the same effectiveness as conventional materials with the benefits of being environmentally friendly and biodegradable. Current studies on bioactive packaging from agricultural residues show the possibility of this new area of study.23
Trends and Future Directions Emerging Technologies
Nanotechnology
Specifically, nanotechnology is becoming a valuable method for improving the properties of bioactive packaging materials from agricultural waste. Nanoparticles derived from cellulose, lignin, or silica obtained from agricultural residues are being incorporated into the packaging films to enhance the mechanical characteristics, barrier properties as well as antimicrobial characteristics of the films.24
Enzymatic Treatments
Enzymatic treatments are also employed for the production of bioactive packaging from agricultural residues as an eco-friendly approach. Enzymes can hydrolyze plant structures and make it simpler to obtain compounds of interest or turn remains into biopolymers that can be employed. Such biopolymers can be used to produce packaging films that are biodegradable as well as bioactive.25
3D Printing
Another newly developed technology that has the potential for tailoring bioactive packaging materials is 3D printing. With the use of agricultural residues as feedstock and 3D printing technology, it is possible to create designs that are appropriate for packaging applications with optimized properties such as barrier properties or mechanical strength in certain zones.26
Sustainability and Circular Economy
This is because the current global trends toward sustainability and circular economy have been the major force behind the development of bioactive packaging. Circular economy revolves around the idea of utilizing materials, products, and resources in a closed system in which the materials are either reused, recycled, or regenerated.27 This way, agricultural residues are ideal for circular economy models given this context. Such residues are converted into valuable packaging materials, hence minimizing the consumption of fresh resources and minimizing organic wastes that could be deposited in landfills. Some of the trends within this area include the production of packaging that is 100% biodegradable and whose components are non-toxic and can be repurposed as fertilizers. Such materials help to create a closed-cycle process in which packaging is derived from agricultural waste, and once used, the packaging turns into compost for the subsequent crops. This cycle not only solves the plastic waste problem but also contributes to agricultural development.28
Market Trends and Consumer Demand
The awareness of consumers for eco-friendly and biodegradable packaging is increasing and this trend is visible in the market. Today, customers are willing to pay more for goods and services that are easily released from materials that are considered sustainable, healthy, and environmentally friendly.13 This demand can be met by bioactive packaging developed from agricultural by-products because these packaging materials are biodegradable and also provide protection for food products without using chemical additives. Bioactive packaging solutions are most commonly used in the food and beverage industry, and their use is only set to increase as consumers become more conscious of the role that packaging plays in environmental and food safety.29 Bioactive packaging is becoming a popular trend in the market as companies launch this new product to replace traditional plastic packaging. Also, with the development in technology and the increase in the sales of products through the electronic platform, there is a need to have packaging that will enhance food safety and quality even when the products are transported to other regions. Bioactive packaging can solve these issues as it has antimicrobial and antioxidant characteristics to maintain food quality during transit. There are also other factors that affect the market dynamics; for instance, there are increasing legislative and regulatory measures being enforced globally on the use of plastic and disposal of the same.30
Regulatory and Policy Implications
It is important that as bioactive packaging from agricultural residues becomes more advanced, the regulatory framework that surrounds it becomes more developed as well. One of the major problems today is to develop effective methods of the usage of bioactive materials, which conform to the high requirements of food safety.31 The packaging materials that are in contact with food must be safe for consumers, and this means that a lot of testing and certification is required. This regulatory supervision makes it impossible for any injurious substance to transfer from the packaging material to the foodstuff during storage and use.32 Governments are also putting in place measures that will encourage the take-up of sustainable packaging systems. Also, there are current and upcoming international standards and certifications for sustainable packaging to help companies prove the environmental and health impact of their packaging materials. Those companies that are developing bioactive packaging from agricultural residues shall get through these certification procedures so as to be able to market their materials as sustainable and safe for use.12
Future Outlook
Based on the current market trends, the future of bioactive packaging derived from agricultural residues appears to be bright because of the following trends that are likely to shape the future of this type of packaging. Nanotechnology, enzymatic treatment, and smart packaging are expected to improve the performance of these materials in the future and, thus, provide stiffer competition to conventional packaging materials. Increased concerns about sustainability in consumer products and business management mean that more and more agricultural residues are expected to be used in packaging materials.33 The shift toward a circular economy, backed up by policies and the consumers’ demand for environmentally friendly products will also drive the advancement of bioactive packaging. Thus, by tackling issues like scalability, costs, and legal considerations, the industry can be on the way to becoming more accepted in society.34 In conclusion, bioactive packaging from agricultural residues presents a new future for packaging materials providing, at the same time proving to be a solution to one of the biggest environmental problems of this generation.
Data and Evidence Analysis
Effectiveness
A major area of interest in bioactive packaging has been the ability of agricultural residues to improve food shelf life. Many works have been conducted with a view to establishing the efficiency of these residues in combating microbial and oxidation activities when applied to packaging materials. For instance, the findings of the studies that involve the integration of citrus peel extracts into biopolymer films show a decrease in microbial growth especially in the fresh-produce and meat packaging.35 This can be attributed to such factors as the use of natural antimicrobial agents that include limonene and flavonoids present in citrus peels. The quantitative data from shelf-life studies also provide a good basis for the utilization of bioactive packaging.36 Studies have revealed that bioactive films derived from rice husks, mango peels, and wheat bran among others can increase the shelf life of different perishable products by days or even weeks than when using conventional packaging techniques.
Mechanical Properties and Durability
Although bioactivity is an important property, other factors including mechanical properties such as tensile strength, flexibility, and barrier properties are also crucial in real usage. Some of the recent research findings suggest that films made from agricultural residue have acceptable mechanical properties when processed appropriately like conventional plastic films. For instance, the mechanical properties analysis through tensile testing indicated that films prepared from starch-agricultural residues including wheat bran or corn husks can attain strength appropriate for food packaging.37 However, the mechanical properties of such films may be very different depending on the type of residue used, the method of its deposition, and the possible presence of additives. Water vapor transmission rates and oxygen transmission rates are the main parameters used to assess barrier properties, and both of them are critical for food packaging since they determine how well the film will protect food from moisture and oxygen.
Economic Feasibility and Cost-Benefit Analysis
Information on life-cycle assessment (LCA) and cost-benefit analysis can also be used to evaluate the potential of bioactive packaging from agricultural residues. The LCA data in most cases encompasses the entire life cycle of the product right from the time the residues are picked to the disposal or recycling of the packaging material.38 Many studies have assessed the life cycle of agricultural-residue-based packaging and compared it to that of conventional plastic packaging. The analysis shows that there is a significant reduction in carbon footprint, energy use, and waste generation. This environmental data is consistent with the current trends of increasing the use of sustainable packaging materials, and therefore, agricultural-residue-based materials are favorable from the sustainability point of view. The economic analysis of the cost of production of bioactive packaging from agricultural residues reveals that although raw material cost is relatively low, the processing and conversion costs can be high because of the need for advanced equipment and technologies for extraction.39
Consumer Perception and Market Data
The perception of consumers is also another component that is vital to the success of bioactive packaging. According to various surveys and market research, the customer rather demands sustainable and eco-friendly packaging materials. These studies prove that consumers are ready to pay more for the goods that are protected by the packaging that corresponds to their values and especially to fight against the excess of plastic packaging and its negative impact on the environment. In the market research in which consumers were exposed to food products enclosed in bioactive films based on agricultural waste, many consumers showed an interest in purchasing these products even at a higher price than the ones packaged in the normal way.40
Comparative Data Analysis
A comparison of the environmental and functional performance between the developed bioactive packaging from agricultural residues and conventional plastic packaging shows a clear preference for the former. A number of LCA comparing the two types of packaging have indicated that bioactive films have a lower overall environmental impact with regard to factors such as carbon footprint, energy use, and waste disposal at the end of the product’s life cycle.41 Information about biodegradability strengthens the advantages of bioactive packaging: bags and films made of agricultural residues disintegrate into non-hazardous compounds within several weeks or months, while traditional plastic packaging remains in the environment for centuries. In the comparison of the performance, however, some problems are revealed. Nevertheless, bioactive packaging has been reported to provide better food preservation efficacy because of its antimicrobial and antioxidant functionalities as compared to traditional plastics even though it may have lower mechanical properties.42 Therefore, current research is directed toward enhancing these properties with a view to developing bioactive films that are eco-friendly and mechanically stable.
Conclusion
Thus, the use of agricultural food residues to produce bioactive packaging materials is a sustainable solution to the world’s problems. Although there are challenges that need to be addressed, the possibilities are enormous to have these materials play a role in the improvement of future sustainability. The conversion of bio food waste into valuable goods for packaging with bioactive properties is also a very relevant solution to the following global issues: food spoilage, waste management, and the shift to the circular economy model.43 Some of the findings from the current studies suggest that what is considered agricultural waste can be harnessed into functional packaging materials that have antimicrobial and antioxidant attributes. Also, the environmental aspect is well addressed since the use of agricultural residues means that organic waste does not end up in landfills; it also helps to reduce the use of petrochemical-based plastics and promote the use of sustainable agriculture. Further efforts in research, development, and cooperation between industries and regulatory authorities will be needed to realize the potential of these materials and to help decrease the plastic pollution problem, and thereby create a healthier planet.
References
1 Cruz RMS, Krauter V, Krauter S, Agriopoulou S, Weinrich R, Herbes C, et al. Bioplastics for food packaging: environmental impact, trends and regulatory aspects. Foods. 2022;11(19):3087.
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11193087
2 Gupta S, Kaur A, Ghoshal G. Sustainable packaging solution from agriculture waste: production of bioplastic, bio composite, biopolymer. In: Arora J, Joshi A, Ray RC, editors. Transforming Agriculture Residues for Sustainable Development. Waste as a Resource. 2024.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-61133-9_11
3 Ranganathan S, Dutta S, Moses JA, Anandharamakrishnan C. Utilization of food waste streams for the production of biopolymers. Heliyon. 2020;6:e04891
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04891
4 Rai S, Solanki M, Anal A, Sagar A, Solanki A, Kashyap B, et al. Emerging frontiers of microbes as agro-waste recycler. 2021. Doi: 10.1007/978-981-33-4347-4_1
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4347-4_1
5 Williams AT, Rangel-Buitrago N. The past, present, and future of plastic pollution. Mar Pollut Bull. 2022;176:113429.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113429
6 Ammendolia J, Saturno J, Brooks AL, Jacobs S, Jambeck JR. An emerging source of plastic pollution: environmental presence of plastic personal protective equipment (PPE) debris related to COVID-19 in a metropolitan city. Environ Pollut. 2021;269:116160.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116160
7 Tang Q, Qian Y, Yang D, Qiu X, Qin Y, Zhou M. Lignin-based nanoparticles: a review on their preparations and applications. Polymers (Basel). 2020;12(11):2471.
https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12112471
8 Ribeiro IS, Maciel GM, Bortolini DG, Fernandes IAA, Maroldi WV, Pedro AC, et al. Sustainable innovations in edible films and coatings: an overview. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2024;143:104272.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2023.104272
9 Cristóbal J, Albizzati PF, Giavini M, Caro D, Manfredi S, Tonini D. Management practices for compostable plastic packaging waste: impacts, challenges and recommendations. Waste Manag. 2023;170:166-76.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2023.08.010
10 Bauer F, Nielsen TD, Nilsson LJ, Palm E, Ericsson K, Fråne A, et al. Plastics and climate change-breaking carbon lock-ins through three mitigation pathways. One Earth. 2022;5(4):361-76.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2022.03.007
11 Radha A, Ahluwalia V, Rai AK, Varjani S, Awasthi MK, Sindhu R, et al. The way forward to produce nutraceuticals from agri-food processing residues: obstacle, solution, and possibility. J Food Sci Technol. 2024;61:429-43.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-023-05729-9
12 Ben-Othman S, Jõudu I, Bhat R. Bioactives from agri-food wastes: Present insights and future challenges. Molecules. 2020;25(3):510.
https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25030510
13 Baker MT, Lu P, Parrella JA, Leggette HR. Consumer acceptance toward functional foods: a scoping review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(3):1217.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031217
14 Jiang Y, Zhang Y, Deng Y. Latest advances in active materials for food packaging and their application. Foods. 2023;12(22):4055.
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12224055
15 Drago E, Campardelli R, Pettinato M, Perego P. Innovations in smart packaging concepts for food: an extensive review. Foods. 2020;9(11):1628.
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9111628
16 Dilucia F, Lacivita V, Conte A, Del Nobile MA. Sustainable use of fruit and vegetable by-products to enhance food packaging performance. Foods. 2020;9(7):857.
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9070857
17 Sangmesh B, Patil N, Jaiswal KK, Gowrishankar TP, Selvakumar KK, Jyothi MS, et al. Development of sustainable alternative materials for the construction of green buildings using agricultural residues: a review. Constr Build Mater. 2023;368:130457.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130457
18 Zhang S, Cheng X, Yang W, Fu Q, Su F, Wu P, et al. Converting fruit peels into biodegradable, recyclable and antimicrobial eco-friendly bioplastics for perishable fruit preservation. Bioresour Technol. 2024;406:131074.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2024.131074
19 Kordi M, Farrokhi N, Pech-Canul MI, Ahmadikhah A. Rice husk at a glance: From agro-industrial to modern applications. Rice Sci. 2024;31(1):14-32.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsci.2023.08.005
20 Kumari S, Debbarma R, Nasrin N, Khan T, Taj S, Bhuyan T. Recent advances in packaging materials for food products. Food Bioeng. 2024;3:236-49.
https://doi.org/10.1002/fbe2.12096
21 Priyadarshi R, Rhim J-W. Chitosan-based biodegradable functional films for food packaging applications. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol. 2020;62:102346.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2020.102346
22 Muñoz-Tebar N, Pérez-Álvarez JA, Fernández-López J, Viuda-Martos M. Chitosan edible films and coatings with added bioactive compounds: antibacterial and antioxidant properties and their application to food products: A review. Polymers (Basel). 2023;15(2):396.
https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15020396
23 Singh AK, Kim JY, Lee YS. Phenolic compounds in active packaging and edible films/coatings: Natural bioactive molecules and novel packaging ingredients. Molecules. 2022;27:7513.
https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27217513
24 Pathiraja AS, Munaweera I. Innovative nanotechnology-based sustainable food packaging: A brief review. 2023. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/jsf2.179
https://doi.org/10.1002/jsf2.179
25 Olatunde OO, Owolabi IO, Fadairo OS, Ghosal A, Coker OJ, Soladoye OP, et al. Enzymatic modification of plant proteins for improved functional and bioactive properties. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2023;16:1216-34.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-022-02971-5
26 Song T, Qian S, Lan T, Wu Y, Liu J, Zhang H. Recent advances in bio-based smart active packaging materials. Foods. 2022;11(15):2228.
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11152228
27 Nikolaou IE, Jones N, Stefanakis A. Circular economy and sustainability: the past, the present and the future directions. Circ Econ Sust. 2021;1:1-20.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s43615-021-00030-3
28 Rosenboom JG, Langer R, Traverso G. Bioplastics for a circular economy. Nat Rev Mater. 2022;7:117-37.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-021-00407-8
29 Stark NM, Matuana LM. Trends in sustainable biobased packaging materials: a mini review. Mater Today Sustain. 2021;15: 100084.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtsust.2021.100084
30 Versino F, Ortega F, Monroy Y, Rivero S, López OV, García MA. Sustainable and bio-based food packaging: a review on past and current design innovations. Foods. 2023;12(5):1057.
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12051057
31 Gomes-Araújo R, Martínez-Vázquez DG, Charles-Rodríguez AV, Rangel-Ortega S, Robledo-Olivo A. Bioactive compounds from agricultural residues, their obtaining techniques, and the antimicrobial effect as postharvest additives. Int J Food Sci. 2021;2021:9936722.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9936722
32 Debeaufort F. Active biopackaging produced from by-products and waste from food and marine industries. FEBS Open Bio. 2021;11(4):984-98.
https://doi.org/10.1002/2211-5463.13121
33 Shi X, Wang Z, Liu S, Zia Q. Scalable production of carboxylated cellulose nanofibres using a green and recyclable solvent. Nat Sustain. 2024;7:315-25.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-024-01267-0
34 Tardy BL, Richardson JJ, Greca LG, Guo J, Bras J, Rojas OJ, et al. Advancing bio-based materials for sustainable solutions to food packaging. Nat Sustain. 2023;6:360-7.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-022-01012-5
35 Haque MA, Rogerson L, Nath ND, Haruna S, Ahn J, Johnston TV. Sustainable management and valorization of antibiotic waste. Chem Eng J. 2024;498:155372.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.155372
36 Taormina PJ. Purposes and principles of shelf life determination. In: Taormina PJ, Hardin MD, editors. Food Safety and Quality-Based Shelf Life of Perishable Foods. 2021.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54375-4
37 Hofmann T, Ghoshal S, Tufenkji N, Adamowski J, Bayen S, Chen Q, et al. Plastics can be used more sustainably in agriculture. Commun Earth Environ. 2023 4:332.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-00982-4
38 Bruno M, Marchi M, Ermini N, Niccolucci V, Pulselli FM. Life cycle assessment and cost-benefit analysis as combined economic-environmental assessment tools: application to an anaerobic digestion plant. Energies. 2023;16(9):3686.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093686
39 Faragò M, Damgaard A, Logar I, Rygaard M. Life cycle assessment and cost-benefit analysis of technologies in water resource recovery facilities: the case of sludge pyrolysis. Environ Sci Technol. 2022;56(24):17988-97.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c06083
40 Mehta A, Serventi L, Kumar L, Morton JD, Torrico DD. Edible and Biodegradable Food Packaging. Springer. 2022.41.
41 Cottafava D, Brussa G, Cavenago G, Cespi D, Rigamonti L, Joana AB, et al. Requirements for comparative life cycle assessment studies for single-use and reusable packaging and products: recommendations for decision and policy-makers. Int J Life Cycle Assess. 2024;29:909-11.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-024-02291-0
42 Wang M, Wei Z, Zhang Z. Antimicrobial edible films for food preservation: recent advances and future trends. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2024;17:1391-411.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-023-03178-y
43 Nargotra P, Ortizo RGG, Wang JX, Tsai M-L, Dong C-D, Sun P-P, et al. Enzymes in the bioconversion of food waste into valuable bioproducts: A circular economy perspective. Syst Microbiol Biomanuf. 2024;4:850-68.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s43393-024-00283-7
