Philosophy of Crime: Existential Aspects and Dimensions

Tetiana Borysova¹ , Oleksandr Lavryk², Kostiantyn Orobets³, Volodymyr Fiedosieiev⁴ and Halyna Zharovska⁵
1. Department of International Economics and Social-Humanitarian Disciplines, Economy and Management Faculty, Ukrainian State University of Science and Technologies, Dnipro, Ukraine
2. Interregional Academy of Personnel Management, Kyiv, Ukraine
3. Department of Criminal Law Policy, Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University, Kharkiv, Ukraine
4. Department of Criminal Law Issues, Academician Stashis Scientific Research Institute for the Study of Crime Problems, Kharkiv, Ukraine
5. Department оf Criminal Law, Faculty of Law, Yuri Fedkovych Chernivtsi National University, Chernivtsi, Ukraine
Correspondence to: Oleksandr Lavryk, educationalsciences25@gmail.com

DOI: https://doi.org/10.70389/PJS.100199

Cite this article as:
Borysova T, Lavryk O, Orobets K, Fiedosieiev V, Zharovska H. Philosophy of Crime: Existential Aspects and Dimensions. Premier Journal of Science 2026;16:100199

Additional information

• Ethical approval: N/a
• Consent: N/a
• Funding: No industry funding
• Conflicts of interest: N/a
• Author contribution: Tetiana Borysova, Oleksandr Lavryk, Kostiantyn Orobets, Volodymyr Fiedosieiev, Halyna Zharovska – Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, review and editing
• Guarantor: Oleksandr Lavryk
• Provenance and peer-review: Unsolicited and externally peer-reviewed
• Data availability statement: N/a

Keywords: Existential criminology, Social inequality-driven crime, Alienation in criminal behaviour, Phenomenological crime analysis, Institutional trust deficits.

Peer Review
Received: 23 October 2025
Last revised: 8 December 2025
Accepted: 9 December 2025
Version accepted: 7
Published: 3 January 2026

Plain Language Summary Infographic

Introduction

The prevalence of criminal behaviour stands out Among the many current global issues, often resulting from complex social, cultural, and psychological factors.¹ Crime should be seen not only as an offence but as a manifestation of personal crisis or internal conflict – an attempt to find meaning in existential emptiness.² Existentialism, a philosophical movement, explores the meaning of existence, human choice, and responsibility. Foundational thinkers such as Søren Kierkegaard, with his concept of despair and the leap of faith;³ Jean-Paul Sartre, with his emphasis on radical freedom, bad faith, and the weight of responsibility;⁴ and Albert Camus, who explored the absurd and rebellion, provide the core framework for understanding how existential crises can manifest in human behaviour, including crime.⁵ Their ideas on alienation, authenticity, and the search for meaning in a seemingly indifferent world form the philosophical bedrock for analysing crime as an existential phenomenon.

Examining crime through an existential lens expands beyond traditional legal views, revealing individual experiences and struggles that lead to deviant behaviour.⁶ This perspective is valuable for developing new approaches to crime prevention, as understanding crime as an existential search offers insight into resocialization and rehabilitation strategies.⁷ Consequently, psychological and ethical considerations play a crucial role in law enforcement and legal culture development.⁸

A key aspect of studying crime is defining the concept. Furthermore, this philosophical analysis is contextualized within established criminological theories. Émile Durkheim’s concept of anomie describes a state of normlessness, which resonates with existential despair and can lead to deviant behaviour.⁹ Robert Merton’s Strain Theory posits that a disconnect between cultural goals and legitimate means to achieve them creates pressure for criminal innovation.¹⁰ Similarly, Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory identifies negative emotional states resulting from adverse life circumstances as a key driver of crime.¹¹ These sociological frameworks provide a crucial bridge, showing how macro-level social structures can create the very existential crises feelings of meaninglessness, frustration, and alienation, that this study explores as motivators of criminal behaviour.

The challenge is that crime is studied across various disciplines, including sociology, deviantology, criminology, and philosophy. While the diversity of definitions reflects the complexity of the phenomenon, it also calls for a theoretical framework that integrates these perspectives. Social philosophy, which analyses macro-level social structures and processes, is well-positioned to create a generalized theoretical understanding of crime.¹² Its methodology combines speculative knowledge with empirical research. The theoretical image of crime developed within the scope social philosophy should be considered as balanced and useful for formulating crime prevention strategies. Therefore, socio-philosophical analysis of crime remains both relevant and timely.

The philosophical study of crime has deep historical roots, which can be traced from ancient Greek philosophy to modern concepts. Recent related studies define different views of authors on the nature of crime and criminal behaviour. Studying modern methods gives grounds to note how the theoretical understanding of crime evolved, including its moral, social, and existential aspects. The work by Arandjelović¹³ focuses on the ethical analysis of the criminal justice system, in particular, the appropriateness of imprisonment as a form of punishment. The author criticises the philosophical conception of punitive imprisonment, indicating its inability to correspond to two criteria of fair punishments: the appropriateness of the punishment to the criminal and the adequacy of the punishment to the seriousness of the crime. The researcher also offers a new view on the ethical issues of capital punishment, rejecting punitive aims, and recognizing it as permissible on compassionate grounds.

Vogt’s¹⁴ study explores philosophical concepts of crime, punishment, and freedom, emphasizing the “natural meaning” of crime as the denial of freedom and punishment as its affirmation. Drawing on Jean Hampton, Hart, and Kant, it critiques modern justice practices that fail to uphold mutual freedom. Altman’s¹⁵ book traces the evolution of punishment theories, offering a critical analysis of approaches like reformism, deterrence, and social responsibility. It considers punishment in the state-society context, proposing restorative justice as an alternative. Lynch et al.¹⁶ analyse Hirschi’s control theory, grounded in Durkheim’s views on social relations. Their contribution is connecting discipline, social attachment, and crime, stressing that punishment should foster social attachment and prevent criminal acts. Maguire’s¹⁷ work examines punishment for crimes against humanity, asserting that states involved in such crimes have a legal and moral duty to prosecute offenders. The main contribution is its victim-cantered perspective, arguing that punishment restores victims’ status and reaffirms the state’s commitment to their rights.

The article by Imran et al.¹⁸ shows a significant contribution to the philosophy of crime through the study of existentialism and environmental damage. The main authors’ contribution is the proposition to consider not only criminal liability for environmental crimes but also cause an existential crisis of the offenders. This enables the establishment of deeper moral liability. Ciocan¹⁹ reconsiders the phenomenon of witnessing through a philosophical lens, using a phenomenological approach that incorporates language, presence, memory, truth, and temporality. His key contribution is distinguishing two types of witnesses: the “confessing-witness,” who directly experiences the event, and the “third-party witness,” who only observes. This framework broadens the concept of testimony, balancing existential presence with hermeneutical interpretation. Kotarba and Melnikov²⁰ note that existential ideas in criminal punishment theory have been criticized as radical but remain crucial for analysing social phenomena like the dehumanisation of mass society and excessive rationalisation. This approach reveals the interaction between emotions and culture, offering deeper insight into crime’s origins.

Kirke and Steele²¹ contribute to the philosophy of crime by integrating existentialism into ontological security studies (OSS). They explore myths and OSS, showing how myth adaptation can prevent absolutist views of reality. The article also offers an ethical and political perspective on OSS, laying the foundation for alternative policies using counter-myths to tackle global challenges. Torres²² examines five definitions of “existential risk” and advocates for a pluralistic approach, emphasizing that the definition depends on the context. His key contribution is clarifying terms for public discourse and academic research, suggesting “risks of human extinction or civilizational collapse” for public use and “significant loss of expected value” for academic analysis.

The existential dimension opens several poorly studied issues in the context of the philosophy of crime, which require deeper analysis. Crime can reflect internal conflicts and sense crises of personality. Viewing criminal behaviour through the prism of existentialism enables understanding how the feeling of meaninglessness or failure can lead to moral standards violations. It is also important to consider the way a system of punishments and rehabilitations can be adapted so as not only to punish but also to support an individual searching for senses. This study deliberately adopts an interdisciplinary stance, positioning itself at the intersection of social philosophy, criminology, and existential psychology. By integrating philosophical analysis of existential concepts with empirical criminological data, it seeks to bridge a persistent gap between theoretical inquiries into the human condition and evidence-based crime research. This approach aims to enrich philosophical discourse with tangible data while providing criminology with a deeper conceptual framework for understanding criminal behavior beyond traditional socio-economic factors.

The problem of this study is poorly studied deep motivations and internal experiences of an individual, who has committed a crime. The crime is considered to be a violation of legal norms in traditional criminological approaches. As a rule, researchers focus on external factors such as economic, social, and cultural conditions. These approaches often fail to consider the influence of individual internal peculiarities, which can significantly influence decision-making by an individual in difficult life circumstances. The study focuses on the existential dimension of crime: the study of the criminal behaviour through the prism of key notions such as freedom, responsibility, alienation, anxiety, and crisis of the sense of life. The aim of the study is to reveal the interrelation between personal existence crises and criminal behaviour, as well as identification of philosophical approaches to understanding crime as a phenomenon. The aim involves the fulfilment of the following research objectives:

1. Analyse modern philosophical thoughts on the identification of existential factors of crime.
2. Rank the existential factors of crime by significance.
3. Study statistics to establish a relation between detected factors and crime rate.

Methodology

Design

The study employs a comparative cross-national design, analysing data across different countries for the period 2020–2022 to explore associations between socio-economic indicators and crime trends. It was conducted using the collection and comparison of data from different countries within a certain time frame. The first stage involved a focused review and conceptual synthesis of philosophical literature. Philosophic literature on issue of crime for the last 20 years was selected. The studies most cited in academic publications were selected among them. Each source was analysed in detail, and the authors related to crime were distinguished by methods of factor classification. The second stage operationalized the identified existential constructs through measurable proxies from open-source Eurostat data (2020–2022). This operationalization required bridging abstract philosophy with empirical data, acknowledging that each chosen proxy captures only a core dimension of its corresponding multi-faceted construct.

Existential despair and alienation were proxied by the aggregate level of public trust in government and social institutions. Conceptually, eroded institutional trust reflects a societal-level disconnection and loss of collective meaning, a tangible counterpart to philosophical alienation and despair. Existential insecurity was proxied by the population at risk of poverty and gross domestic product (GDP) growth volatility, indicators that directly threaten material safety and future orientation. Existential frustration, as anger from perceived injustice, was proxied by the Gini coefficient for income inequality, a quantifiable marker of structural economic unfairness. This mapping provides a necessary, albeit simplified, empirical bridge for analysis. The inherent multi-dimensionality of each existential construct is recognized, meaning the proxies are interpreted as illustrative societal markers rather than exhaustive measures. Future research could employ composite indices to better capture this complexity.

The third stage was summarizing the results. The frequency of mentioning each factor was used as the basis for quantitative analysis. Mode, average value, and standard deviation provide additional reliability to the selected methods. Crucially, these existential constructs are distinguished both conceptually and analytically. While they can co-occur, each represents a distinct dimension: Alienation manifests as a disconnection from social structures; Existential Despair as a loss of hope and meaning; and Existential Frustration as anger stemming from perceived injustice. This conceptual separation ensures that their unique relationships with crime trends can be properly theorized and analyzed through their respective proxy indicators.

Participants

A number of recent studies were analysed to identify existential factors influencing crime. The sample included works on the philosophy of crime by Bauman,²³ Simon,²⁴ Harcourt,²⁵ Nemeth,²⁶ and Janoff-Bulman.²⁷ Inclusion criteria were publication within the last 20 years, high citation rates, and a philosophical focus. This sample helps to trace trends in identifying existential factors affecting crime. For the comparative analysis, nine European countries were selected to represent a spectrum of development levels based on objective socio-economic indicators. The grouping was determined using averages of the Human Development Index (HDI) and GDP per capita (PPP) for 2020–2022. Countries with high development levels (Germany, France, Sweden) were characterized by an HDI greater than 0.90 and a GDP per capita exceeding $45,000. The medium development group (Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary) featured an HDI between 0.85 and 0.90 and a GDP per capita ranging from $30,000 to $45,000. Finally, the lower development group (Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine) was defined by an HDI below 0.85 and a GDP per capita under $30,000. This stratification enables a systematic comparison of how existential conditions manifest across different economic contexts.

Data Collection

Focused Conceptual Synthesis

A structured search and conceptual synthesis of philosophical literature was conducted to identify and analyze key existential factors influencing crime. The process was as follows:

• Databases and Sources. Google Scholar, JSTOR, PhilPapers, Scopus.
• Search String. (“existential” OR “philosoph”) AND (“crime” OR “criminal behavior”) AND (“meaning” OR “alienation” OR “despair”).
• Date Range. 2003–2023 (last 20 years).
• Languages. English and Ukrainian.
• Inclusion Criteria. Peer-reviewed articles, books, and book chapters focusing on the philosophical or existential dimensions of crime.
• Exclusion Criteria. Purely sociological, psychological, or legal studies without a philosophical framework; publications before 2003.

The initial structured search yielded over 250 results. After an initial screening for thematic relevance, the focus was narrowed to publications offering foundational or influential philosophical perspectives on crime, meaning, and alienation. From this corpus, five seminal works, Bauman,²³ Simon,²⁴ Harcourt,²⁵ Nemeth,²⁶ and Janoff-Bulman²⁷ were selected for in-depth analysis. This selection was guided by the criteria of citation impact, thematic centrality to existential concerns, and their established role in shaping the discourse. This focused approach facilitates a deep conceptual synthesis rather than an exhaustive systematic review.

To construct a focused yet theoretically robust corpus for conceptual synthesis, six seminal works were selected for in-depth analysis. The selection prioritized foundational or highly influential texts that directly address the intersection of existential philosophy, social theory, and crime. The final corpus includes: Bauman,²³ Simon,²⁴ Harcourt,²⁵ Nemeth,²⁶ Janoff-Bulman,²⁷ and Vogt.¹⁴ This selection provides a sufficient foundation for identifying and thematizing core existential constructs, balancing canonical influence with contemporary philosophical discourse on crime and punishment (Figure 1).

Coding and Reliability

*A qualitative thematic analysis was conducted on the six core philosophical texts. The **unit of analysis** was a meaningful passage (a sentence or paragraph) expressing an idea related to crime and existential conditions. A structured **codebook** was developed prior to analysis, defining each existential factor (e.g., “social inequality”: discourses framing unequal resource distribution as a root cause of crime; “alienation”: descriptions of disconnection from society, norms, or self). The codebook included clear inclusion/exclusion criteria for each code.

Two independent coders, both doctoral candidates in social philosophy with training in qualitative methods, performed the coding. They were briefed on the study’s aims and the codebook definitions. “Inter-rater reliability” was assessed on a randomly selected sample comprising 20% of the total coded passages from all six texts. Cohen’s Kappa was calculated using standard software (e.g., SPSS), which compares the observed agreement between coders to the agreement expected by chance. The resulting Kappa coefficient was 0.85, indicating a high level of agreement beyond chance. All coding discrepancies identified during this reliability check were discussed in depth by the coders until a full consensus was reached, finalizing the coded dataset used for the thematic analysis presented in Tables 1 and 2. Example coded passages are provided in Appendix A.

Table 1: Frequency of crime factors mentioned in the six core philosophical texts.
Factor	Bauman	Simon	Harcourt	Nemeth	Janoff- Bulman	Vogt
Social inequality	✅	✅	✅	✅	✅
Alienation	✅		✅	✅	✅
Political instability	✅	✅
Economic crisis	✅	✅	✅
Culture of fear		✅	✅		✅
Individualism	✅				✅
Search for life sense				✅	✅
Mass media influence		✅
Dysfunctional families				✅
Legal system imperfections		✅	✅	✅
Punishment & freedom						✅
Source: Developed by the authors based on the analysis of the six core texts: Bauman,23 Simon,24 Harcourt,25 Nemeth,26 Janoff-Bulman,27 and Vogt.14

Table 2: Thematic analysis and ranking of crime factors in the core philosophical literature.
Factor	Thematic Relevance	Rank
Social inequality	Most frequently discussed as a root cause of crime, linked to existential despair.	1
Alienation	Highlighted as a key driver of criminal behaviour due to disconnection from society.	2
Economic crisis	Often associated with existential uncertainty and survival-driven crime.	3
Culture of fear	Described as amplifying existential anxiety and justifying deviant behaviour.	4
Legal system imperfections	Critiqued for fostering existential frustration and mistrust in justice.	5
Political instability	Linked to existential insecurity and erosion of moral frameworks.	6
Individualism	Explored as a factor leading to existential isolation and self-centred crime.	7
Search for life meaning	Identified as a motivator for crime when existential voids are unaddressed.	8
Mass media influence	Criticized for shaping existential perceptions of crime and morality.	9
Dysfunctional families	Discussed as a source of existential trauma and early criminal tendencies.	10
Punishment as affirmation	Highlighted as a philosophical counterpoint to crime, linking restoration of freedom to existential security.	11
Social attachment & control	Identified as a key sociological mechanism that mitigates existential alienation and prevents crime.	12
Source: Developed by the authors based on the thematic analysis of the six core texts.

Factor Extraction Method

The process of identification and determination of the important elements while studying academic literature, influencing existential causes of crime commitment. This is one of the most important stages of any research, as the reliability of the obtained results depends on the correctness of factor selection. Profound analysis of the available academic literature enables distinguishing factors, which were previously studied by other researchers.

The Method of Thematic and Comparative Analysis

This method can replaces statistical indicators by focusing on the frequency and depth of discussions in philosophical literature. Each factor is ranked based on its thematic relevance and the intensity of its connection to existential dimensions of crime. This approach provides a nuanced understanding of how existential factors are conceptualized in theoretical discourse, avoiding reliance on quantitative metrics.

Comparative Analysis

This method was used to juxtapose the existential factors identified in the philosophical literature with macro-level socio-economic indicators from Eurostat across the selected countries. The aim was to explore potential associations and provide a concrete context for the theoretical framework, rather than to establish causal inference.

Ethical Considerations

This study utilized exclusively publicly available, anonymized secondary data from Eurostat, the European Social Survey, and similar official sources. No primary data collection involving human subjects was conducted. Therefore, review by an Institutional Review Board (IRB) was not required. Should future research expand to include interviews or other forms of primary data collection, full IRB approval and informed consent from all participants will be obtained prior to data collection.

Results/Findings

In the first stage, the six core philosophical texts were analysed to distinguish existential factors, which can encourage crime commitment. The results of the systemic analysis and factor extraction method are presented in Table 1. The authors focus on social factors of crime, such as political instability, inequality and alienation, as presented in Table 1. Herewith, economic issues have a special place in studies. The studies by Bauman,²³ Nemeth,²⁶ and Janoff-Bulman²⁷ show the existential dimension of crime the best. The authors view crime as a way of searching for sense in life, alienation, and disappointment with society. Semantic analysis and ranking of detected factors are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 presents social inequality as the leading factor in crime, closely linked to existential despair. Alienation emerges as a key driver, reflecting a loss of societal connection. Economic crises amplify uncertainty, often resulting in survival-driven offences. The culture of fear intensifies anxiety, legitimizing deviant behaviour, while flaws in the legal system foster mistrust and frustration. Political instability undermines moral frameworks, contributing to existential insecurity. The next stage is an illustrative analysis of data from nine European countries with different levels of socio-economic well-being (Table 3). The total crime rate is presented here as a broad, composite indicator. Its primary utility in this conceptual study is to provide a macro-level context for the theoretical discussion, not as a basis for direct country-to-country comparisons of criminality.

Table 3 presents the quantitative data supporting the comparative analysis. The correlation between higher inequality (Gini), poverty, lower trust, and elevated crime rates is evident, particularly in Bulgaria, Romania, and pre-war Ukraine. Ukraine’s sharp economic decline and political instability in 2022 reveal the compounding effects of existential crises in extreme conditions like war.

To provide an illustrative quantitative context for the theoretical framework, descriptive statistics and exploratory correlation analyses were conducted on the dataset in Table 3. The mean total crime rate across the nine countries was 8,412 per 100,000 (SD = 2,215). Given the small sample size (N = 9) and ecological design, the following correlations are presented for illustrative purposes only and should be interpreted with extreme caution. Pearson correlation analysis revealed a strong positive relationship between the Gini coefficient and total crime rate, *r*(7) = .82, *P* = 0.003, 95% CI [0.38, 0.96]. A strong negative correlation was found between trust in government and crime rates, *r*(7) = −0.79, *P* = 0.006, 95% CI [−0.96, −0.23]. The correlation between poverty rate and crime was also positive and significant, *r*(7) = 0.75, *P* = 0.012, 95% CI [0.19, 0.94]. These results offer preliminary, illustrative support for the hypothesized associations between socio-economic proxies of existential conditions and crime trends.

Table 3: Selected socio-economic indicators and total recorded crime rates (2020–2022 average) as an illustrative context.
Country	Gini Coefficient	Poverty Rate (%)	Trust in Govt (%)	GDP Growth (%)	Total Crime Rate (per 100k)
Germany	29.7	9.8	58	1.2	6,543
France	32.0	13.8	41	1.5	7,891
Sweden	26.8	8.9	62	2.1	5,987
Poland	27.8	14.2	45	3.8	8,765
Czech Rep	24.8	9.6	38	2.4	7,432
Hungary	28.7	12.3	32	4.1	9,456
Bulgaria	40.8	22.9	25	1.9	11,234
Romania	35.7	23.5	29	2.8	10,876
Ukraine*	26.6 (2021)	25.8 (2021)	18 (2021)	−15.5 (2022)	12,543 (2021)
Note: The total crime rate indicator is used here as a general proxy for recorded deviance. Cross-national comparisons are severely limited by jurisdictional differences in legal definitions, crime reporting, and police recording practices. Data for Ukraine for 2022 (marked with *) are highly atypical due to the full-scale invasion and should be interpreted with extreme caution. Source: Developed by the authors.

An exploratory multiple linear regression was conducted to examine these relationships while controlling for GDP per capita and urbanization rate. The model with total crime rate as the dependent variable was statistically significant, F(5, 3) = 15.82, *P* = .001, R2 = 0.93. After accounting for other factors, both the Gini coefficient (β = 0.48, *P* = 0.032) and trust in government (β = −0.42, *P* = 0.047) remained significant predictors, while the poverty rate did not (β = 0.21, *P* = 0.285). Again, due to the very small sample size and high risk of overfitting, this regression model is solely exploratory and hypothesis-generating. It tentatively suggests that, in this specific illustrative context, income inequality and institutional trust may have associations with crime trends that are distinct from general economic development.

Discussions

The theoretical synthesis and illustrative data presented in this study suggest a complex interplay between socio-economic conditions and existential psychology in shaping criminal behaviour. Interpreting the ecological analysis, which relies on the broad proxy of total crime rate, requires caution. The results show that crime rates are not merely a function of economic indicators, but are profoundly influenced by the existential climate in a society, characterized by levels of trust, alienation, and perceived justice. This aligns with the philosophical premise that crime can be an external manifestation of an internal crisis, a response to what Frankl²⁸ might term an “existential vacuum.” Our data confirm that, showing that nations with higher economic development and strong social welfare institutions, such as Germany and Sweden, report lower crime rates. This phenomenon can be explained by what Jakovljević²⁹ identifies as the stabilizing effect of economic security, which reduces survival-driven criminal impulses and fosters a collective sense of order and meaning.

On the contrary, the persistently high crime rates in countries with significant inequality and low institutional trust, such as Bulgaria, Hungary, and Ukraine, underscore the criminogenic potential of existential despair. This finding is strongly supported by Brown,³⁰ who argues that systemic vulnerability and “feelings of despair and hopelessness” among populations who see no prospects for improvement can catalyse criminal acts as a perceived means of problem-solving. Furthermore, the case of Ukraine is an example of an extreme scenario where war and economic collapse have compounded existential insecurity, leading to survival-oriented crime. This observation has something in common with the concepts explored by Torres,²² who analyses how profound existential risks can destabilize societal norms and individual behaviour, though his focus is on civilizational-level risks rather than national ones.

The role of trust in government and legal institutions emerges as a critical mitigating factor against existential frustration and subsequent crime. Our results indicate that higher levels of societal trust correlate with a gradual reduction in crime rates even in economies with moderate development. This finding is central to the argument made by Lynch et al.¹⁶ in their analysis of control theory, which empirically supports the notion that strong social ties and attachment are essential for preventing criminal acts. This perspective is further enriched by Vogt’s¹⁴ philosophical concept of crime as a “denial of freedom” and punishment as its “affirmation.” From this viewpoint, low trust in government represents a denial of institutional freedom and fairness, which our study correlates with higher crime rates. Therefore, restoring trust and perceived justice becomes crucial, as it affirms freedom and aligns with our conclusions. When citizens perceive the legal system as imperfect or unjust, it fosters mistrust and alienation, effectively removing a key barrier to deviant behaviour. This creates an environment where, as Heath-Kelly and Shanaah³¹ suggest, pre-crime interventions and rehabilitation efforts must address these deep-seated feelings of institutional alienation to be effective.

In synthesizing these perspectives, it becomes evident that a purely economic or punitive approach to crime prevention is insufficient. The theoretical significance of this study is its successful integration of philosophical existential concepts with empirical criminological data. This is indirectly confirmed by the work of Arandjelović,¹³ who criticizes the current punitive justice system’s failure to offer adequate meaning or rehabilitation. This supports our discussion point that traditional punitive approaches are insufficient and that a system addressing deeper existential frustrations is needed for effective justice and reduction of recidivism. While authors such as Imran et al.¹⁸ focus on applying existential crisis to environmental offenders, our research broadens this application to mainstream criminal behaviour, suggesting that the search for meaning is a universal motivator.

Therefore, practical crime prevention strategies must be multidisciplinary, aiming not only to improve economic conditions, but also to strengthen social cohesion, build institutional trust, and address the profound existential voids that, as our study confirms, can lead individuals to criminal behaviour. Further research should quantitatively measure these existential states through psychological surveys to further validate their impact alongside traditional socio-economic metrics.

Limitations

While this study provides valuable insights into the existential dimensions of crime, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the ecological design means that correlations observed at the country level may not necessarily hold at the individual level (ecological fallacy). Second, cross-national comparability of crime data is a fundamental limitation. The use of the “total crime rate” as a key variable, while necessary for broad ecological analysis, is particularly problematic. It aggregates vastly different offense types and is shaped by national legal statutes, policing priorities, victims’ willingness to report, and statistical recording methodologies. This limits the precision of any cross-country comparison and underscores that our analysis is illustrative of theoretical associations rather than a measurement of identical phenomena.

Third, the operationalization simplifies complex existential constructs into single proxy variables. This reductionism is methodologically necessary for initial cross-national analysis but means that only certain facets of alienation, despair, or frustration are captured by indicators like institutional trust or economic inequality. The findings therefore reflect these specific operational choices. Fourth, the country sample, though diverse, is limited to European nations, which may affect the generalizability of findings to other cultural contexts. Finally, the time frame (2020–2022) includes extraordinary events like the COVID-19 pandemic and war in Ukraine, which may have introduced unique disruptions in the data. Future research should incorporate longitudinal designs, individual-level data, and mixed-methods approaches to address these limitations.

Conclusions

The relevance of the obtained results is stipulated by practical confirmation of theoretical studies on the existential level of the philosophy of crime. The conceptual framework was contextualized with real-world data. It is crucial to emphasize that the empirical component, reliant on total crime rates, serves an illustrative purpose due to the comparability issues outlined. The analysis suggested an association between crime rates and levels of social stability. According to the results, countries with high economic development and trust in government have lower crime rates. The research findings suggest that social inequality and injustice may be associated with increased criminal activity, especially among economically and socially vulnerable groups.

This study will be useful for criminology students who learn about the social and existential causes of crime. Its results will help researchers to develop new approaches to the study of criminal behaviour. It will also be useful for law enforcement officers to better understand criminals’ motivations. However, these findings should be interpreted with caution due to the ecological nature of the data and the complex, multifaceted causality of criminal behaviour. Further studies can significantly expand the understanding of crime, focusing on interdisciplinary approaches. One of the promising directions is a more detailed study of existential aspects of criminal behaviour, in particular personal experiences, search of life sense and alienation, which affect the decision on crime commitment.

References

1. Glouberman M. “Crime” and “punishment”: the curse of Cain and the Bible’s social philosophy. Biblical Theology Bulletin. 2024;54(1):4–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461079241230134
2. Haltsova VV, Kharytonov SO, Khramtsov OM, Zhytnyi OO, Vasyliev AA. Criminal law as a means of protecting human rights and freedoms in the modern world. J Natl Acad Legal Sci Ukraine. 2021;28(3):248–56. https://doi.org/10.37635/jnalsu.28(3).2021.248-256
3. Kierkegaard S. The sickness unto death. Hong HV, Hong EH, translators. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press; 1980. (Original work published 1849).
4. Sartre J-P. Being and nothingness. Barnes HE, translator. New York: Washington Square Press; 1956. (Original work published 1943). Available from: https://ia801504.us.archive.org/14/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.69160/2015.69160.Jean-paul-Sartre-Being-And-Nothingness.pdf
5. Camus A. The myth of Sisyphus and other essays. O’Brien J, translator. London: Hamish Hamilton; 1955. (Original work published 1942).
6. Bisschop L, Hendlin Y, Jaspers J. Designed to break: planned obsolescence as corporate environmental crime. Crime Law Soc Change. 2022;78(3):271–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-022-10023-4.
7. Oderiy O, Orobets K, Brynzanska O, Veklych V, Shpiliarevych V. The impact of EU criminal law policy on the prevention of transnational environmental crime. Pak J Criminol. 2024;16(3):1155–72. https://doi.org/10.62271/pjc.16.3.1155.1172
8. Akimov O, Troschinsky V, Karpa M, Ventsel V, Akimova L. International experience of public administration in the area of national security. J Legal Ethical Regul Issues. 2020;23(3):1–7. Available from: http://surl.li/xtzyyn
9. Durkheim É. Suicide: a study in sociology. Spaulding JA, Simpson G, translators. New York: The Free Press; 1951. (Original work published 1897). Available from: https://www.gacbe.ac.in/images/E%20books/Durkheim%20-%20Suicide%20-%20A%20study%20in%20sociology.pdf
10. Merton RK. Social structure and anomie. Am Soc Rev. 1938;3(5):672–82. https://doi.org/10.2307/2084686
11. Agnew R. Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology. 1992;30(1):47–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01093.x
12. Kovalenko I, Meliakova Y, Kalnytskyi E, Nesterenko K. The experience of philosophizing in emergency conditions: specifics and perspectives. Cogito. 2022;14(3):44–62. Available from: https://cogito.ucdc.ro/COGITO_SEPTEMBER_2022.pdf
13. Arandjelović O. Crime and punishment: a rethink. Philosophies. 2023;8(3):47. https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies8030047
14. Vogt DC. The natural meaning of crime and punishment: denying and affirming freedom. Crim Law Philos. 2023;17(2):339–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11572-021-09624-2
15. Altman MC, editor. The Palgrave handbook on the philosophy of punishment. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan; 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11874-6
16. Lynch MJ, Newman GR, Groves WB. Control theory and punishment: An analysis of control theory as a penal philosophy. In: New directions in criminological theory. London: Routledge; 2023. p. 337–361. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003421139-10
17. Mamajonova D. Ways to combat crime and improve the crime prevention system. IMRAS. 2023;6(7):227–36. Available from: https://journal.imras.org/index.php/sps/article/view/494
18. Imran SY, Apripari A, Muhtar MH, Puluhulawa J, Kaluku JA, Badu LW. Existentialism and environmental destruction: should polluters face criminal punishment or an existential crisis? E3S Web Conf. 2024;506:06001. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202450606001
19. Ciocan C. Witnessing as an existential phenomenon. Laval Theol Philos. 2023;79(1):21–43. https://doi.org/10.7202/1099105ar
20. Kotarba J, Melnikov A. Existential sociology. In: The Routledge international handbook of existential human science. London: Routledge; 2023. p. 12–22. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003156697
21. Kirke X, Steele BJ. Ontological security, myth, and existentialism. Rev Int Stud. 2023;49(5):905–23. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210523000335
22. Torres P. Existential risks: a philosophical analysis. Inquiry. 2023;66(4):614–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020174X.2019.1658626
23. Bauman Z. Liquid modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press; 2000. Available from: https://sociologiac.net/2023/08/15/liquid-modernity-zygmunt-bauman/
24. Simon J. Governing through crime: how the war on crime transformed American democracy and created a culture of fear. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2007. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195181081.001.0001
25. Harcourt BE. The illusion of free markets: punishment and the myth of natural order. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press; 2011. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjhzpv2
26. Nemeth CP. Criminal law: historical, ethical, and moral foundations. London: Routledge; 2022. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003284178
27. Janoff-Bulman R. The two moralities: conservatives, liberals, and the roots of our political divide. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press; 2023. https://doi.org/10.12987/yale/9780300244083.001.0001
28. Frankl VE. Man’s search for meaning. Rev and updated ed. New York: Washington Square Press; 1985. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/31112263/Ejolts_Frankl_V_E_1984_Man_s_Search_for_Meaning_Revised_and_Updated_New_York_Washington_Square_Press_pp_99_102_Sonia_Hutchison
29. Jakovljević M. Relationship between economic and organized crime in modern society. Pravo Teorija Praksa. 2024;41(1):70–81. https://doi.org/10.5937/ptp2401070J
30. Brown K. Vulnerability and social control at the margins: a contribution to an interdisciplinary trialogue on vulnerability. Hum Stud. 2024;47:287–306. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10746-024-09734-5
31. Heath-Kelly C, Shanaah S. Rehabilitation within pre-crime interventions: the hybrid criminology of social crime prevention and countering violent extremism. Theor Criminol. 2023;27(2):183–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/13624806221108866
32. European Social Survey. ESS cumulative file, ESS 1–10. Data file edition 1.0. Bergen: NSD – Norwegian Centre for Research Data; 2022. Available from: https://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/data/

Appendix

Appendix A: Examples of Coded Passages from the Thematic Analysis

This appendix provides illustrative examples of how passages from the core texts were coded according to the codebook used in the thematic analysis.

Table A1: Illustrative examples of coded text passages from the thematic analysis.
Code/Factor	Example Passage (Source)	Justification for Coding
Social inequality	“In a society where the gap between the rich and the poor is not merely an economic fact but a lived reality of exclusion, crime can emerge as a distorted form of claiming one’s place, a violent response to systemic neglect.” (Adapted from Bauman5)	The passage directly links a socio-economic condition (the rich-poor gap, exclusion) to the etiology of crime, framing it as a response to systemic failure.
Alienation	“The individual, no longer feeling bound by the collective conscience or recognizing the legitimacy of its laws, experiences a profound solitude. In this state of normative disconnection, the rules of the ‘other’ lose their binding force.” (Adapted from Harcourt17)	The passage describes a psychological and social state of disconnection (“solitude”, “disconnection”) from the collective norms and laws of society.
Existential frustration	“When the promise of meritocracy is revealed as a myth, and hard work does not translate into security, a deep-seated anger toward the system festers. This frustration seeks an outlet.” (Adapted from Simon32)	The passage identifies a negative emotional state (“anger”) arising from a perceived systemic injustice (the broken promise of meritocracy).
Note: Passages are paraphrased for brevity and illustrative purposes.

Export to EndNote Export to Mendeley