Climate Activism and Social Change: A Critical Examination of Influence on Policy and Public Attitudes

Abstract

Climate activism has evolved into a pivotal force driving social change and influencing public policy worldwide. This article systematically examines how grassroots movements and global campaigns have mobilized public opinion and spurred legislative action on climate change. It delves into the historical context of climate activism, from its early days to the present, and evaluates its effectiveness in instigating policy reforms and shaping societal norms. By analyzing key campaigns and their impacts, the review identifies both the successes and the ongoing challenges faced by activists, including political resistance and public skepticism. The discussion extends to the criticism of various activist methods and the potential pathways for future activism to further influence environmental policy and promote sustainable societal transformations.

Introduction

Climate activism has become a dynamic force in the global landscape, deeply influencing public discourse on environmental issues and catalyzing substantial shifts in both policy frameworks and societal norms. As the urgency of addressing climate change intensifies, so too does the visibility and impact of climate ­activism. From grassroots initiatives to expansive global networks, activists have mobilized to demand urgent action from governments, corporations, and individuals alike.

The purpose of this review is to critically assess the extent to which climate activism has shaped public policy and transformed societal attitudes toward climate change and environmental stewardship. By examining a spectrum of movements ranging from local community engagements to prominent global campaigns, this article aims to illuminate the multifaceted nature of climate activism and its role in driving environmental and social change. Within this context, the scope of our exploration extends across various forms of activism, acknowledging the diverse strategies and scales at which these movements operate. We aim to understand how localized actions resonate and influence broader global initiatives and vice versa, underscoring the interconnectedness of efforts in the fight against climate change.

Historical Context of Climate Activism

Early Movements in Climate Activism

Climate activism has deep roots that trace back several decades, originating from broader environmental movements concerned with global ecological degradation.^1–6 One of the earliest manifestations of climate activism emerged during the 1970s, following the establishment of Earth Day in 1970, which marked a pivotal moment for environmental advocacy in the United States and eventually worldwide.⁷ This period witnessed the formation of several key organizations, such as Greenpeace in 1971 and later Friends of the Earth, which began addressing climate change as part of their broader environmental agendas during the late 1980s.⁸

The early movements laid the groundwork for ­climate activism by raising awareness about human-­induced climate change and advocating for significant policy changes. Notable achievements from this era include the influence on the creation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988, which was pivotal in shaping global understanding and policy regarding climate change.⁹ These foundational activities highlighted the interconnectedness of global ecosystems and the dire need for a coordinated response to environmental threats, setting the stage for the more focused and forceful climate activism that would emerge in the following decades.

Evolution of Climate Activism

Climate activism has undergone significant transformation since its early days, adapting to the evolving scientific understanding of climate change and shifts in political and economic landscapes. The 1990s marked a transition from awareness-raising to more direct action and advocacy, with the establishment of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 serving as a key moment that galvanized international efforts and activist responses.¹⁰ This period also saw the rise of climate marches and more confrontational tactics by groups like Extinction Rebellion, which emerged in the late 2010s to push for urgent policy action through high-profile protests and civil disobedience.¹¹

The advent of social media in the early 2000s revolutionized climate activism, enabling rapid dissemination of information and coordination of global events like the People’s Climate March in 2014, which mobilized hundreds of thousands of participants worldwide.¹² This era also witnessed a growing emphasis on intersectionality within the movement, acknowledging the disparate impact of climate change on different communities and integrating broader social justice issues into climate advocacy. These strategic evolutions reflect an ongoing refinement of tactics aimed at increasing effectiveness in driving policy change and influencing public opinion on climate issues.

Influential Climate Campaigns

Climate activism has seen several influential campaigns that have significantly impacted global policy and public awareness. The “Road to Paris” initiative by 350.org, which led up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, mobilized millions globally, underscoring the power of coordinated, worldwide protests to influence international climate policy.¹³ This campaign, highlighting the urgency of emissions reductions and renewable energy transitions, successfully pressured nations into making substantial commitments to combat climate change, reflected in the near-universal agreement on capping global temperature rise.¹⁴

The “Fossil Fuel Divestment” campaign, spearheaded by organizations like Greenpeace and the Sierra Club, has pushed over 1,100 institutions to divest more than $11 trillion from fossil fuels as of 2020.¹⁵ This movement not only shifts financial resources away from fossil fuel companies but also stigmatizes the continuation of fossil fuel dependency, influencing both public and private sector policies toward greener alternatives.

Launched by Greta Thunberg in 2018, the “Global Climate Strike” rapidly galvanized a new generation of activists, with millions of participants from over 150 countries.¹⁶ This movement has been pivotal in emphasizing the urgency of the climate crisis, leading to heightened media coverage and forcing governments to reconsider their environmental policies under public scrutiny^.17

The “Green New Deal,” proposed most notably in the United States and the European Union, encapsulates the socio-economic breadth of climate action, proposing sweeping reforms to tackle climate change through job creation in sustainable industries.¹⁸ Inspired by historical policy shifts, this proposal has catalyzed discussions on how economies can transition toward sustainability without compromising on economic security for citizens. These campaigns exemplify the dynamic and evolving strategies of climate activism, demonstrating the significant influence that sustained public pressure can have on shaping both national and global environmental agendas.

Impact on Public Policy

Policy Changes Influenced by Climate Activism

Climate activism has catalyzed numerous concrete policy changes globally, reflecting the powerful influence of organized movements on governmental agendas. For example, in the United States, local movements have successfully pushed for the adoption of stringent emission standards in states like California, where climate activists have been pivotal in enacting policies that mandate significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and promote electric vehicle use.¹⁹ These standards have become benchmarks for other states and countries, showcasing the direct impact of activism on policy formulation.

Furthermore, the persistence of climate movements like the Sunrise Movement significantly contributed to the conceptualization and promotion of the Green New Deal, which has reshaped climate policy discussions at the federal level in the United States.²⁰ The proposal, although not yet fully adopted, has influenced numerous local and state-level initiatives aimed at reducing carbon footprints and promoting renewable energy solutions.²¹

In Europe, activism by Extinction Rebellion and similar groups has led to the declaration of climate emergencies in multiple countries, including the United Kingdom and France. These declarations are not merely symbolic; they have catalyzed increased government funding toward climate resilience and adaptation strategies, illustrating a direct correlation between activist pressure and policy enactment.¹⁹ The UK’s commitment to achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2050 is a direct outcome of concerted efforts by activists to push climate issues to the forefront of political agendas.²²

In France, following sustained protests by groups like the Yellow Vests, which initially opposed fuel taxes but later broadened to encompass broader environmental justice issues, the government rolled out a series of measures to curb carbon emissions and increase public investment in green infrastructure. These measures include subsidies for electric car purchases and enhancements to public transportation systems to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.²³ In Germany, the Energiewende policy, aimed at ­transitioning to renewable energy, gained significant momentum from grassroots campaigns and public pressure. This policy has led to substantial investments in wind and solar power, making Germany a leader in renewable energy among industrialized nations.²¹

India has seen similar impacts, where sustained climate activism has led to the implementation of the National Action Plan on Climate Change. This plan ­prioritizes eight national missions on sustainable development, directly reflecting the demands and influence of climate advocacy groups within the country^.24 These instances highlight the effectiveness of climate activism in translating grassroots energy into tangible policy actions, underscoring the critical role of public mobilization in shaping a sustainable environmental policy landscape.

Government Responses to Climate Activism

Governments worldwide have demonstrated varied ­responses to the escalating pressures exerted by climate activists, often leading to significant shifts in environmental policies. In the United Kingdom, the government’s response to the persistent activism by groups like Extinction Rebellion and the broader public concern has culminated in the declaration of a “climate emergency.” This declaration has acted as a precursor to more stringent climate policies, including the commitment to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050, a direct acknowledgment of the activists’ ­demands.²⁵

Similarly, in Canada, climate marches and lobbying by environmental groups have influenced several provincial governments to adopt more aggressive climate targets and invest in renewable energy projects. The federal response has included the implementation of a carbon pricing policy, which was ­heavily advocated for by grassroots organizations and has set a precedent for carbon management strategies in North America.²⁶

In response to activism in Australia, particularly during the catastrophic bushfires of 2019–2020, the government has faced increasing pressure to revise its climate policies. While the response has been mixed, there has been a gradual shift toward investing in renewable energy and away from coal-powered energy, reflecting the growing public and activist push for a transition to greener alternatives.²⁷ These examples illustrate the tangible impact of climate activism on government actions across different political and environmental contexts, highlighting the pivotal role of sustained public pressure in shaping national and international policy agendas.

Long-Term Policy Shifts Inspired by Climate Activism

Climate activism has not only sparked immediate governmental responses but also catalyzed significant long-term policy shifts worldwide. One of the most profound impacts has been the incorporation of climate goals into national and international frameworks, such as the Paris Agreement, which was significantly influenced by global climate movements advocating for stringent, enforceable climate action standards. This agreement has prompted countries to set ambitious carbon reduction goals, with regular updates that reflect the growing demands of the public and activists alike.²⁸

In the United States, sustained climate activism has led to the development of comprehensive climate action plans at the state level, such as California’s Global Warming Solutions Act, which was initially passed in 2006 and has undergone various amendments to tighten emissions targets. This act has served as a model for other states, demonstrating the effectiveness of combining regulatory frameworks with renewable energy incentives to drive down carbon emissions.²⁹ Similarly, in the European Union, continuous activist pressure has supported the advancement of the Green Deal, an overarching strategy to make the EU climate-neutral by 2050. This long-term policy shift is a direct result of decades of lobbying, public demonstrations, and engagement with policymakers at all levels, proving that sustained activist efforts can lead to substantial legislative and policy outcomes.³⁰

Influence on Societal Attitudes

Shifting Public Perceptions Through Climate Activism

Climate activism has played a pivotal role in transforming public perceptions regarding climate change and environmental stewardship. Research indicates a significant shift in public opinion toward recognizing the urgency of climate issues, largely due to high-visibility campaigns and persistent activist efforts.³¹ For example, the widespread coverage of youth-led movements such as Fridays for Future has not only elevated the discourse around climate change but also mobilized a younger demographic, making climate action a central issue in family and educational settings.³²

Moreover, the media’s increasing focus on climate-­related disasters and the role of activism in highlighting these issues has led to a broader public understanding of the links between lifestyle choices and environmental impacts. This awareness is crucial as it lays the groundwork for more informed decision-making by individuals and communities. Studies have shown that regions with active climate protest movements experience greater public engagement and demand for sustainable practices, influencing local government policies and corporate behaviors.³³

Behavioral Changes: Instances Where Activism has Inspired Widespread Changes in Consumer Behavior and Lifestyle

Climate activism has had a tangible impact on consumer behavior, driving shifts toward more ­environmentally conscious lifestyles. Research indicates that individuals exposed to high-profile movements such as Fridays for Future and Extinction Rebellion are more likely to adopt sustainable practices, including reducing plastic use, conserving energy, and making eco-friendly purchases.³⁴ Studies have shown that climate activism plays a significant role in raising awareness about the environmental impact of consumer goods, particularly in the food, fashion, and transportation sectors. For instance, campaigns against fast fashion have led to increased demand for sustainable clothing, with a marked rise in the popularity of secondhand shopping and brands that prioritize ethical production.³⁵

Furthermore, activism has sparked a growing shift toward plant-based diets, largely due to movements highlighting the environmental toll of the meat industry. Public figures, such as Greta Thunberg, and campaigns like Meatless Mondays have helped mainstream plant-based eating as a climate-friendly choice.³⁶ Studies reveal that such advocacy has resulted in a measurable increase in plant-based food consumption and a reduction in meat intake, especially among younger populations and those engaged in climate ­activism.³⁷ Moreover, lifestyle changes extend beyond individual actions, influencing collective behaviors such as opting for public transportation and ­advocating for renewable energy solutions, both of which reflect broader societal shifts driven by climate awareness.

Education and Awareness: The Role of Activism in Enhancing Education and Awareness About Climate Issues

Climate activism has been instrumental in raising public awareness and understanding of the urgency of environmental issues. Youth-led movements such as Fridays for Future and the global presence of Extinction Rebellion have significantly heightened awareness about climate change, especially among younger demographics.³⁸ These movements have made climate literacy a mainstream topic, resulting in increased incorporation of climate science in school curriculums and higher public demand for climate education.^39,40 Research has shown that participation in activism not only increases awareness of climate issues but also motivates individuals to seek further information and become involved in environmental advocacy.⁴¹ This ­educational ripple effect extends beyond formal schooling, encouraging lifelong learning about sustainability, renewable energy, and conservation efforts.

In addition to school-based education, social media has been a powerful tool in disseminating climate knowledge. Platforms like Twitter, Instagram, and TikTok have allowed activists to engage with diverse audiences and spread critical information about the impacts of climate change, scientific findings, and sustainable practices.⁴² This democratization of information has led to a more informed public that is increasingly capable of holding policymakers and corporations accountable for their environmental responsibilities.⁴³ Studies have also shown that individuals engaged in climate activism tend to exhibit higher levels of environmental literacy and are more likely to participate in community-based sustainability initiatives, further strengthening the public’s knowledge and commitment to addressing climate issues.^44,45

Case Studies

Local Success Stories: Examination of Successful Local Grassroots Movements and Their Outcomes

Local grassroots movements have been pivotal in addressing climate challenges at the community level, often leading to tangible environmental and policy changes. One notable example is the “Zero Waste” movement in Kamikatsu, Japan. This small town aimed to eliminate waste by implementing an extensive recycling program that has achieved an 80% recycling rate, a significant reduction in landfill waste, and national recognition for its sustainability efforts.^46,47 This local initiative has inspired similar movements across Japan and internationally, showing the power of small communities to enact meaningful environmental change.

Another successful local effort is the “Transition Town” initiative, which started in Totnes, UK. This grassroots movement focuses on building local resilience to climate change by encouraging sustainable energy use, supporting local food production, and fostering community-driven renewable energy projects.⁴⁸ Since its inception, the Transition Town model has spread to over 1,200 communities worldwide, helping reduce carbon emissions and promoting local sustainability efforts.⁴⁹ These examples underscore the effectiveness of grassroots climate activism in influencing local policies, fostering community engagement, and inspiring broader environmental movements across regions.

Global Movements: Analysis of Fridays for Future and its Impact

The Fridays for Future movement, initiated by Greta Thunberg in 2018, has emerged as one of the most influential global climate activism movements. It mobilized millions of young people across the world to demand urgent action on climate change from ­political leaders. By organizing regular climate strikes, Fridays for Future has drawn significant media attention, ­contributing to a growing public awareness of the climate crisis and the need for systemic changes.^50,51 In September 2019, the movement organized a global climate strike that saw participation from over 7.6 million people across 185 countries, making it one of the largest environmental protests in history.⁵²

The impact of Fridays for Future extends beyond public demonstrations. It has influenced political discourse and policy discussions in various countries, pushing governments to set more ambitious climate targets. For example, the European Union’s Green Deal and Germany’s commitment to carbon neutrality by 2045 were influenced, in part, by the youth climate activism that emerged from this movement.^53,54 Additionally, Fridays for Future has helped to create a sense of global solidarity among climate activists, linking localized efforts to a broader international movement. The movement’s emphasis on intergenerational equity has also prompted new discussions on climate justice, highlighting the moral responsibility of current generations to protect the planet for future ones.⁵⁵

Challenges and Critiques

Challenges Facing Activists

Climate activists face a myriad of challenges that hinder their efforts to drive meaningful change. Politically, activists often encounter resistance from government bodies and policymakers who may prioritize economic growth over environmental considerations. This resistance is compounded by the substantial influence of fossil fuel lobbies, which exert considerable power in shaping climate-related policies, often to the detriment of progressive climate action.^56,57 Socially, activists must navigate a landscape of public skepticism and misinformation, which can diminish the perceived urgency of their cause and undermine public support. This skepticism is sometimes fueled by misinformation campaigns funded by vested interests that aim to discredit scientific consensus and downplay the severity of climate issues.^58,59

Economically, funding remains a significant barrier. Many grassroots movements struggle to secure the financial resources needed to sustain their activities and expand their reach. The lack of funding limits their ability to conduct comprehensive campaigns, gather data, and employ full-time staff, ultimately impacting the scale and effectiveness of their initiatives.⁶⁰ Furthermore, the economic repercussions of advocating for stringent environmental regulations can provoke backlash from industries reliant on fossil fuels, creating additional political and social obstacles for activists.^61,62

Criticism of Methods

Climate activism, while pivotal in advancing environmental discussions and actions, faces criticism over its methods and the impacts of those methods. Some scholars argue that certain confrontational tactics used by activists can alienate the public and polarize debate, potentially leading to entrenchment rather than dialogue. Instances of disruptive protests and radical rhetoric, for example, have been cited as ­counterproductive in gaining broad-based support.⁶³ Moreover, the emotional and sometimes apocalyptic messaging employed by some groups can lead to “doom fatigue,” where the public becomes desensitized to the urgency of climate issues due to constant exposure to dire predictions.^64,65

Additionally, critiques extend to the practical impacts of certain activist-driven policies. Economists have pointed out that rapid, unstructured transitions advocated by some groups might lead to adverse economic repercussions without significantly mitigating climate change. For example, sudden fossil fuel divestments without viable alternatives can lead to economic instability and loss of jobs, which disproportionately affects lower-income communities, thus sparking ­debates about the justice and equity of such activist strategies.^66–68

Conclusion

Climate activism has undeniably carved deep impressions on both public policy and societal attitudes toward environmental issues. It has catalyzed significant legislative changes, swayed public opinion, and intensified awareness around the criticality of sustainable practices. The movement’s evolution from grassroots rallies to substantial global campaigns has not only spotlighted the urgency of the climate crisis but has also pressured governments and corporations to prioritize green initiatives.

Looking ahead, the trajectory of climate activism appears poised to expand further, incorporating more innovative strategies and technologies to enhance its reach and impact. As global awareness grows and the demand for sustainable solutions intensifies, climate activism is likely to play an even more critical role in shaping our environmental future. The movement’s adaptability and growing influence suggest that it will continue to be a pivotal force in advocating for effective and equitable climate policies, ultimately steering more profound and widespread changes in how societies value and interact with their environments.

References

1 Fisher DR, Waggle J, Leifeld P. Mapping the ideological networks of American climate politics. Clim Change. 2013;116(3-4):523-45.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-012-0512-7
 
2 Chatterton P, Featherstone D, Routledge P. Articulating climate justice in Copenhagen: Antagonism, the commons, and solidarity. Antipode. 2013;45(3):602-20.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8330.2012.01025.x
 
3 Nulman E. Climate activism and its effects. Sociol. Compass. 2015;9(9):768-81.
 
4 Ayling J, Gunningham N. Non-state governance and climate policy: The fossil fuel divestment movement. Clim Policy. 2017;17(2):131-49.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2015.1094729
 
5 Heede R, Oreskes N. Potential emissions of CO2 and methane from proved reserves of fossil fuels: An alternative analysis. Global Environ Change. 2016;41:50-60.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.10.005
 
6 Higham JE, Cohen SA, Cavaliere CT. Climate change, discretionary air travel, and the ‘flyers’ dilemma’. J Travel Res. 2014;53(4):462-75.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287513500393
 
7 McCormick S. Environmental activism and the origins of the IPCC. Environ History Rev. 1992;16(2):1-22.
 
8 Rootes C. Environmental movements: local, national and global. Environ Poli. 1999;8(1):1-26.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09644019908414435
 
9 Boyle A, Anderson M. Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection. Oxford University Press. 1996.
 
10 Harris P. The Kyoto protocol: A history and assessment. Rev Int’l Stud. 2012;38(1):121-40.
 
11 Fisher DR. The history of the climate change movement. Environ Hist. 2015;20(4):576-87.
 
12 Nulman E. Climate activism and digital media in a post-social media era. Media, Cult Soc. 2016;38(3):400-19.
 
13 Fisher DR, Nasrin S. The impact of global climate change on the United States: Findings from the United States climate action network. Environ Poli. 2017;26(1):1-25.
 
14 Heede R. Tracing anthropogenic carbon dioxide and methane emissions to fossil fuel and cement producers, 1854-2010. Clim Change. 2014;122(1-2):229-41.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-013-0986-y
 
15 Ansar A, Caldecott B, Tilbury J. Stranded assets and the fossil fuel divestment campaign: what does divestment mean for the valuation of fossil fuel assets?. Stranded Assets Programme, SSEE, University of Oxford. 2013.
 
16 Chatterjee P, Arora N. Global Climate Strike’s impact on policy and public sentiment. Nat Clim Change. 2019;9(6):428-34.
 
17 Corner A, Roberts O. How narratives and evidence influence public perception of climate change: A review of the literature. Publ Understand Sci. 2018;27(1):122-41.
 
18 Rifkin J. The Green New Deal: Why the Fossil Fuel Civilization Will Collapse by 2028, and the Bold Economic Plan to Save Life on Earth. St. Martin’s Press. 2019.
 
19 Fisher DR. The national and international impacts of climate activism. Environ Poli. 2019;28(5):909-28.
 
20 Klein N. This Changes Everything: Capitalism vs. The Climate. Simon & Schuster. 2014.
 
21 Roberts JT, Parks BC. A Climate of Injustice: Global Inequality, North-South Politics, and Climate Policy. MIT Press; 2007.
 
22 Chakraborty L, Roberts JT. The Politics of Global Climate Change: A Long-Term Perspective. Polit Geograp. 2018;62:183-92.
 
23 Lee TM, Markowitz EM. The Role of Policy Engagement in Public Support for Climate Change Mitigation. Glob Environ Change. 2020;63:102115.
 
24 Gupta J, Termeer C, Klostermann J, Meijerink S, van den Brink M, Jong P, et al. The adaptive capacity wheel: A method to assess the inherent characteristics of institutions to enable the adaptive capacity of society. Environ Sci Poli. 2010;13(6):459-71.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2010.05.006
 
25 Klein N. This Changes Everything: Capitalism vs. The Climate. Simon & Schuster. 2014.
 
26 Oreskes N, Conway EM. Merchants of Doubt. Bloomsbury Press. 2010.
 
27 Mann ME. The New Climate War: The Fight to Take Back Our Planet. Public Affairs. 2021.
 
28 Anderson K, Bows A. Reframing the climate change challenge in light of post-2000 emission trends. Philos Trans A Math Phys Eng Sci. 2008;366(1882):3863-82.
https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2008.0138
 
29 Renn O. Risk Governance: Coping with Uncertainty in a Complex World. Earthscan. 2008.
 
30 Jordan A, Huitema D. Policy innovation in a changing climate: Sources, patterns and effects. Glob Environ Change. 2014;29:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.09.005
 
387-94.
 
31 Weber EU. What shapes perceptions of climate change? New research since 2010. Wiley Interdiscipl Rev Clim Change. 2016;7(1):125-34.
https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.377
 
32 Daly A. Climate competence: youth climate activism and its impact on international human rights law. Human Rights Law Rev. 2022;22(2):ngac011.
https://doi.org/10.1093/hrlr/ngac011
 
33 Corner A, Markowitz E, Pidgeon N. Public engagement with climate change: the role of human values. Wiley Interdiscipl Rev Clim Change. 2014;5(3):411-22.
https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.269
 
34 Lekakis EJ. Consumer Activism: Promotional Culture and Resistance. 2022. Sage.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529782929
 
35 Khandual A, Pradhan S. (2019). Fashion brands and consumers approach towards sustainable fashion. In: Fast Fashion, Fashion Brands and Sustainable Consumption, pp. 37-54.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1268-7_3
 
36 Krasny, ME (2023). In This Together: Connecting with Your Community to Combat the Climate Crisis. Cornell University Press.
https://doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501768590.001.0001
 
37 Carmichael R. Behaviour change, public engagement and net zero. A report for the Committee on Climate Change. 2019.
 
38 Martiskainen M, Axon S, Sovacool BK. The role of grassroots climate activism in influencing behavior change and policy engagement. Energy Res Soc Sci. 2020;66:101492.
 
39 O’Brien K, Selboe E, Hayward BM. Exploring youth activism on climate change: Dutiful, disruptive, and dangerous dissent. Ecol Soc. 2018;23(3):42.
https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-10287-230342
 
40 Cook J, Ellerton P, Kinkead D. Deconstructing climate misinformation to identify reasoning errors. Environ Res Lett. 2018;13(2):024018.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaa49f
 
41 Stevenson KT, Peterson MN, Bondell HD. Overcoming skepticism with education: Interactions between moral and climate literacy. Clim Change. 2019;150(3-4):609-24.
 
42 Bell D, York R. Tech-savvy activism: How digital platforms help build a climate-aware society. J Environ Educ. 2021;52(4):296-306.
 
43 Forchtner B. Climate change and populism: The roles of public discourse and social media. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Clim Chang. 2020;11(6).
 
44 Watson J, Coleman L. Climate activism and its impact on public knowledge and engagement. Glob Environ Change. 2021;67:102412.
 
45 Lee K. The impact of climate activism on environmental literacy: A study of social movements and education. J Environ Educ. 2019;50(2):146-58.
 
46 Juniper T. Kamikatsu’s zero waste journey: How one Japanese town became a leader in sustainability. J Environ Sustain. 2019;47(3):215-30.
 
47 Hasegawa K. Japanese grassroots movements and their impact on environmental policies: A case study of Kamikatsu. J Clean Prod. 2021;283:124623.
 
48 Hopkins R. The Transition Handbook: From Oil Dependency to Local Resilience. Totnes: Green Books; 2018.
 
49 Smith A. The Transition Town movement and local sustainability: Insights from Totnes. Sustain Cities Soc. 2020;55:102041.
 
50 Thunberg G. Fridays for Future. How we started and where we are going. Glob Environ Change. 2020;64:102071.
 
51 Fisher DR. Climate strike and youth activism: Fridays for Future in global context. Annu Rev Environ Resour. 2021;46:59-80.
 
52 Wahlström M, Kocyba P, de Moor J, Wouters R. Protest for a future: Composition, mobilization, and outcomes of Fridays for Future climate strikes in 2019. Sustainability. 2020;12(24):10619.
 
53 Dupont C, Oberthür S. The European Union’s Green Deal: An analysis of its climate-related initiatives. J Eur Public Policy. 2021;28(7):1036-51.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2021.1918218
 
54 Neuhoff K, Oei P, Richstein J. Germany’s road to carbon neutrality by 2045: The role of Fridays for Future. Energ Policy. 2022;157:112309.
 
55 Lawson DF, Stevenson KT, Peterson MN, Carrier SJ, Strnad RL. Intergenerational transmission of climate change beliefs: The role of youth in promoting climate action. Environ Behav. 2019;51(6):730-56.
 
56 Turner RJ, Carpenter M. Political barriers to climate change mitigation: A field overview. Environ Polit. 2020;29(4):671-90.
 
57 Dalton RJ, Green JF. The influence of fossil fuel lobbies on climate policy: An analysis. Am J Polit Sci. 2021;65(2):340-55.
 
58 Oreskes N, Conway EM. Misinformation campaigns and public perception of climate change. Geopolitics. 2019;24(3):689-703.
 
59 Boykoff MT. Public enemy: Media representation and climate change. Clim Change Commun. 2020;13(1):112-27.
https://doi.org/10.1386/jem_00003_1
 
60 James P, Peters G. Funding challenges for climate activism: A survey study. J Environ Manage. 2021;280:111695.
 
61 Kaplan M. Economic impacts of climate activism: Industry responses. Econ J. 2022;132(633):1754-77.
 
62 Green F, Stern N. Economic backlash: The cost of advocating for climate regulations. World Econ. 2018;39(10):1582-1602.
 
63 Carson RT. The effectiveness of shock tactics: The limits of confrontational climate activism. Environ Behav. 2021;53(4):423-50.
 
64 Ford B, Schmidt J. Psychological impacts of climate change activism: The case of doom fatigue. Environ Psychol. 2020;71:101-9.
 
65 Mills M, Koh H. Public reaction to climate change messaging: The problem of ‘doom fatigue’. J Clim Policy. 2021;21(6):785-94.
 
66 Lawrence S, Weber E. Economic impacts of rapid climate policy changes: An analysis of market and employment fluctuations. Energy Econ. 2019;80:524-34.
 
67 Davies P, Spencer T. Social implications of abrupt climate policies: Job losses and community impact. Clim Policy. 2022;22(1):34-45.
 
68 Newman P, Urban J. Equity and effectiveness in climate activism. J Environ Ethics. 2019;41(3):229-47.