Media Representation and Cultural Identity

Mary Christine Wheatley
Wheatley Research Consultancy, Bagley, Minnesota, USA
Correspondence to: mchristinewheatley@gmail.com

DOI: https://doi.org/10.70389/PJSS.100004

Additional information

• Ethical approval: N/a
• Consent: N/a
• Funding: No industry funding
• Conflicts of interest: N/a
• Author contribution: Mary Christine Wheatley – Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, review and editing
• Guarantor:Mary Christine Wheatley
• Provenance and peer-review:
  Commissioned and externally peer-reviewed
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Keywords: Cultural imperialism, Representation theory, Media stereotypes, Intercultural relations, Streaming platforms.

Peer Review
Received: 17 September 2024
Accepted: 17 October 2024
Published: 6 November 2024

Introduction

The intersection of media and cultural identity forms a pivotal area of study in cultural studies, examining how television (TV), films, and digital media not only reflect but also shape the cultural identities of individuals and communities. Media representations play a crucial role in molding the perceptions of culture and identity, influencing how individuals see themselves and others in a globalized world. This review aims to dissect the dynamics of media representation and its profound impact on the formation of cultural identity and intercultural relations. Focusing on a wide array of media forms, from ­traditional outlets like TV and films to burgeoning digital platforms, this paper explores how these mediums serve as conduits for cultural expression and identity formation. By examining various forms of media representation, the review seeks to understand how these portrayals contribute to or hinder the development of cultural identity, especially in a world where media consumption is ubiquitous. The scope of this analysis will span across different geographic and cultural contexts, providing a comprehensive look at the universal and localized effects of media on cultural identity.

Theoretical Framework

Key Theories on Media Influence on Cultural Identity

The relationship between media representation and cultural identity is deeply intertwined and influenced by several key theoretical frameworks. One predominant theory is cultural imperialism, which posits that media from dominant cultures can shape and even dominate the cultural landscapes of less dominant ones, potentially leading to a homogenization of ­values and practices.¹ This theory highlights concerns about the power dynamics in global media flows and their impacts on local cultures, potentially eroding indigenous identities and substituting them with commercialized Western norms. Representation theory, on the contrary, offers ­insights into how media portrayals of different cultures and identities influence the way individuals perceive themselves and others. The theory underscores the role of media as powerful tools in constructing reality, shaping societal attitudes, and reinforcing or challenging stereotypes.² It suggests that the way groups are represented in media can affirm or distort the public’s understanding of these groups, thereby influencing intergroup relations and personal identity.

Moreover, the encoding/decoding theory by ­Stuart Hall asserts that media messages are encoded by their creators with specific meanings and decoded by ­audiences in various ways depending on cultural backgrounds, social contexts, and individual experiences.³ This theory is crucial in understanding the diverse interpretations and impacts of media across different audiences, highlighting the active role of viewers in making sense of media messages. These theories together frame the complex dynamics of how media representations can affirm, challenge, or reshape cultural identities across the globe, suggesting a potent influence on intercultural relations.

Contextual Background: Media’s Role in Shaping Cultural Identity

The relationship between media and cultural identity is profound and multifaceted, shaping perceptions and social norms across different eras. Historically, media has played a pivotal role in constructing and disseminating cultural narratives that influence public perception and identity formation. Early theories, such as the hypodermic needle model, suggested that media could directly inject ideas and messages into a passive audience, significantly molding public consciousness.⁴ As media evolved, so did the theories that explored its impact on culture. The cultural studies approach, particularly through the lens of Stuart Hall, introduced the idea of encoding and decoding, indicating that media messages are not uniformly received but are interpreted through various cultural lenses.⁵ This perspective acknowledges that individuals may accept, negotiate, or reject the messages they receive based on their cultural backgrounds and experiences.

Further, the concept of media imperialism has ­critiqued the dominance of Western media content in shaping the cultural landscapes of other regions, often overshadowing local cultures and promoting a­ homogenized global culture.⁶ This influence is evident in the widespread adoption of Western lifestyles and values, particularly through the consumption of TV, films, and, more recently, digital content. These frameworks highlight the dynamic and reciprocal relationship between media and cultural identity, where media not only reflects but also actively constructs and contests the cultural and social realities within which it operates.⁷

Media Representation Across Different Cultures

Comparative Analysis: Media Representations in Western vs. Eastern Contexts

The portrayal of cultural identities in media varies ­significantly across different cultural landscapes, ­revealing profound impacts on public perception and intercultural relations. In Western media, there has been a long-standing critique regarding the dominance of Eurocentric narratives which often sideline non-Western perspectives.⁸ This is evident in films and TV, where Western ideals and lifestyles are frequently presented as the norm, shaping global aspirations and cultural values.⁹ Conversely, Eastern media, particularly in countries like Japan and South Korea, offer narratives that deeply embed local cultural elements and traditions. These media landscapes not only reinforce local cultural identities but also export these identities globally through phenomena like the Korean Wave (Hallyu), which has popularized Korean culture worldwide through music, cinema, and TV.¹⁰ The global reception of these media products demonstrates their powerful role in shaping and exporting cultural identity.¹¹

The difference in media representations also ­extends to the portrayal of themes such as family, honor, and social obligations, which are often depicted in starkly different ways. Western media may focus on individualism and personal achievement, while Eastern media frequently underscores community and familial bonds.¹² These portrayals influence the audience’s cultural expectations and behavior, subtly guiding how individuals perceive themselves and others within both local and global contexts.¹³ This comparative analysis highlights the powerful role of media in cultural identity formation. By understanding these differences, scholars and policymakers can better appreciate the nuances of cultural exchange and the potential for media to foster intercultural ­understanding and cooperation.¹⁴

Influence of Media Technology on Cultural Identity

Advancements in media technology have transformed how cultural identities are formed and expressed. The widespread adoption of streaming platforms, social media, and virtual reality (VR) has not only expanded access to diverse cultural content but has also reshaped the interaction between global audiences and cultural narratives.

Streaming Platforms and Global Accessibility

Streaming services like Netflix and Amazon Prime have revolutionized media consumption by making regional content globally accessible, thus fostering a cross-pollination of cultural narratives. Shows like “Money Heist” from Spain and “Sacred Games” from India have engaged global audiences, highlighting cultural specificities while contributing to a shared global narrative. These platforms facilitate a dual process of cultural homogenization and diversification, creating a complex landscape of global cultural identity.¹⁵

Social Media’s Role in Shaping Identity

Social media platforms have emerged as powerful tools for cultural expression and identity formation. Platforms like Instagram and TikTok allow users to curate and ­disseminate cultural content, influencing both self-identity and collective cultural understanding. Through hashtags, trends, and viral content, social media has become a significant arena for negotiating and contesting cultural identities, often blurring the lines between global and local cultural expressions.¹⁶

Impact of VR on Cultural Empathy

VR offers immersive experiences that can enhance understanding and empathy across cultural divides. VR experiences like “Carne y Arena” by Alejandro González Iñárritu allow users to live through the experiences of migrants, fostering a profound sense of connection and empathy. This technology holds the potential for deeper cultural immersion, offering perspectives that are often underrepresented or misunderstood in traditional media.¹⁷

Impact on Intercultural Relations

Influence on Public Perception: How Media Shapes Public Views of Different Cultures

Media representations profoundly influence public perceptions by crafting and disseminating images and narratives that define various cultures. Through the portrayal of characters and stories, media not only ­reflects existing cultural attitudes but also has the power to reshape them. For example, research has shown that exposure to diverse representations in media can reduce racial stereotypes and increase empathy toward minority groups.¹⁸ TV shows and films that provide nuanced depictions of different cultures contribute to broader societal understanding and ­acceptance. Films like Crazy Rich Asians have been pivotal in changing perceptions by showcasing Asian culture and characters in a mainstream Hollywood context, which has had ripple effects on public perceptions and the industry’s approach to cultural diversity.¹⁹ Similarly, the portrayal of Muslim characters in a post-9/11 world has evolved, with a gradual shift ­toward more nuanced and positive representations, impacting public sentiments and potentially reducing stigma.²⁰ These shifts in media representation play a critical role in shaping how societies perceive and interact with different cultures, emphasizing the importance of diversity in media production. The impact of these portrayals extends beyond entertainment, influencing intercultural relations and encouraging a more inclusive global dialog.^21,22

Real-World Implications: Consequences of Media Representations on Intercultural Dialog and Relationships

Media portrayals significantly influence intercultural relationships by shaping perceptions and behaviors toward different cultures. For instance, Mastro et al. discuss how stereotypical media portrayals can lead to biases and prejudice, which hinder effective intercultural communication and relationships.²³ These portrayals can create what Essed describes as everyday racism, making stereotypical and negative depictions a normal part of daily life, which can affect public attitudes and interactions.²⁴ Research by Lee and Bean emphasizes the impact of media on shaping immigration policies and public sentiment toward immigrants. They suggest that negative media coverage increases societal tensions and supports restrictive policy attitudes.²⁵ This relationship is further explored by Saleem et al., who found that exposure to negative media portrayals of ethnic groups could exacerbate conflicts and reduce the willingness for dialog between groups.²⁶ The potential for media to bridge cultural divides lies in its capacity to foster understanding and ­empathy. Adams and Roscigno show that diverse and accurate media representations can promote more positive ­intercultural relations by providing a broader understanding of different cultural experiences and challenges.²⁷ Such inclusive media practices are crucial for enhancing intercultural dialog and for the promotion of global peace and understanding.

Addressing Biases and Stereotypes in Media

Challenges: Persistent Stereotypes and Biases in Media Portrayals

Media representations are not merely reflections of reality; they are constructions that significantly shape societal perceptions. Persistent stereotypes and biases in media portrayals continue to pose significant challenges. For instance, Aboud et al. highlight how media often perpetuates racial and gender stereotypes, which can influence public perceptions and reinforce societal prejudices.²⁸ These stereotypical portrayals not only limit the representation of diverse identities but also impact the audience’s real-world expectations and interactions. Furthermore, Dixon’s research shows that racial ­minorities are frequently depicted in roles that reinforce harmful stereotypes, such as criminals or low-status jobs, which contributes to a distorted public perception of these groups.²⁹ Similarly, Wood’s analysis reveals that gender biases in media, such as the underrepresentation of women in powerful roles, perpetuate gender inequalities by shaping cultural norms and expectations.³⁰ Addressing these biases requires a concerted effort not only from media creators but also from consumers. Educating media consumers about the impacts of ­stereotypes and advocating for more inclusive and accurate representations can drive gradual change in media production practices. Additionally, supporting policies that encourage diversity in media can help mitigate these pervasive biases and foster a more equitable media landscape.

Strategies for Improvement: Promoting Accurate and Fair Media Representations

To address persistent biases and stereotypes in media, there are several strategies that both media creators and consumers can adopt. One significant approach is to increase diversity among media creators and decision-makers. According to research by Hunt and Ramón, diversity in media production leads to more inclusive and accurate representations of various cultural groups, ultimately reducing harmful stereotypes.³¹ By ensuring that production teams include individuals from diverse backgrounds, media organizations can provide more nuanced portrayals that reflect the complexity of real-world identities.³² Moreover, incorporating inclusive storytelling practices is crucial. Media scholars emphasize the need for creators to engage with and represent marginalized communities authentically. This involves avoiding tokenism and ensuring that minority characters are portrayed with depth and complexity, rather than as one-dimensional figures.³³ Studies by scholars like Yuen suggest that media creators should actively consult with cultural experts and members of the communities being portrayed, allowing for a more authentic representation.³³ On the consumer side, media literacy education can play a pivotal role in promoting critical engagement with media content. By teaching audiences to recognize stereotypes and question biased representations, consumers can become more discerning viewers and demand better-quality media. Research by Kellner and Share highlights the effectiveness of media literacy programs in fostering critical thinking and empowering individuals to challenge media biases.³⁴

Case Studies of Media Impact

In a globalized world, the representation of ­cultures across different media platforms has become ­increasingly significant in fostering intercultural ­understanding—or, conversely, perpetuating stereotypes. This section explores the evolution of cultural representation in global media, examining how various identities have been portrayed across regions and industries. By analyzing specific case studies, the ­section aims to understand the complexities and impacts of cross-­cultural media representation on global cultural identity.

Comparative LGBTQ+ Representation in American and Non-Western Media

Case Study 1: Moonlight and LGBTQ+ Representation in American Media: Moonlight (2016) is a groundbreaking film in ­American cinema, offering a rare portrayal of Black, LGBTQ+ identity. Directed by Barry Jenkins, the film presents Chiron’s journey of self-discovery, highlighting the intersections of race, sexuality, and masculinity. ­Unlike earlier portrayals, Moonlight gave visibility to the LGBTQ+ characters of color, reshaping Hollywood’s narrative around diversity and intersectionality.^35,36 The film sparked broader conversations in the US about race and LGBTQ+ issues, pushing for increased inclusivity in media representation.³⁷ Moonlight’s success signaled a shift in Hollywood, inspiring other productions to feature diverse LGBTQ+ characters, particularly those representing marginalized communities. Films and TV shows such as Pose and Euphoria have since taken a similar approach, further advancing LGBTQ+ visibility in American media.³⁸

Case Study 2: LGBTQ+ Representation in Non-Western Media: In non-Western media, the LGBTQ+ representation has faced cultural and legal barriers. In India, Aligarh portrayed a sensitive story about a university professor facing societal rejection due to his sexual orientation.³⁹ Released at a time when homosexuality was still criminalized in India, the film marked an important moment in Bollywood’s handling of LGBTQ+ topics, though progress remains slow.⁴⁰ Similarly, Nigeria’s Nollywood has addressed LGBTQ+ narratives sparingly, given the country’s strict anti-LGBTQ+ laws. We Don’t Live Here Anymore (2018) portrayed a same-sex relationship and highlighted the challenges LGBTQ+ individuals face in an intensely religious society. While groundbreaking, the film’s reception reflected the deep-seated social stigma surrounding LGBTQ+ issues in Nigeria.^41,42

Comparative Analysis: LGBTQ+ Visibility in Western vs. Non-Western Media: The LGBTQ+ representation in Western media, particularly in the US, has experienced significant progress due to growing cultural acceptance and legal reforms. Films like Moonlight reflect this shift toward inclusivity and intersectionality in storytelling. In contrast, non-Western media, constrained by legal and societal norms, continues to grapple with the challenges of LGBTQ+ visibility. While films like Aligarh and We Don’t Live Here Anymore have made strides, they ­remain outliers in regions where LGBTQ+ narratives are still highly contentious.^43,44

African Representation in Hollywood vs. Nollywood

Case Study 1: Black Panther and African Identity in Hollywood: Black Panther (2018), directed by Ryan Coogler, was a watershed moment for African representation in Western media. The film, centered around the fictional African nation of Wakanda, presented a vision of ­Africa that diverged sharply from the usual portrayals of poverty, war, and underdevelopment in Hollywood. Wakanda, a technologically advanced, autonomous society rich in culture, heritage, and resources, ­represented an empowering reimagining of African identity. The significance of this portrayal ­cannot be overstated, as it provided a positive and futuristic ­depiction of African culture, rejecting long-standing stereotypes. The film resonated strongly with African ­American and global African communities, who saw in ­Wakanda a celebration of African heritage and an ­affirmation of cultural pride. Scholars argue that Black Panther’s ­success was not only commercial but also cultural, as it opened a space for African diasporic narratives to gain visibility in mainstream media.^45,46 It also sparked discussions on Afro-futurism, a genre that combines African culture with futuristic, technological themes, providing a new narrative framework for thinking about Africa’s future in global discourse.⁴⁷

Case Study 2: Nollywood’s Approach to African Representation: Nollywood, Nigeria’s booming film industry, has long been a platform for authentic African storytelling. Unlike Hollywood’s portrayals of Africa, which often focus on an outsider’s perspective, Nollywood centers on local narratives, showcasing the challenges, diversity, and vibrancy of African life from an internal viewpoint. Films like Lionheart (2018), directed by Genevieve Nnaji, exemplify Nollywood’s modern take on African identity. Lionheart portrays the story of a Nigerian woman navigating the corporate world while balancing family obligations, offering a nuanced representation of contemporary African life.⁴⁸ Nollywood’s strength lies in its ability to depict a wide array of African experiences, from rural to urban settings, with stories that resonate with local and ­international audiences. This self-representation is crucial in challenging the exoticized, monolithic views of ­Africa often seen in Western media.

Comparative Analysis: Hollywood vs. Nollywood: The comparison between Hollywood’s depiction of ­Africa and Nollywood’s internal narratives reveals a stark contrast. While Black Panther broke new ground by offering a futuristic and idealized version of Africa, it still catered to a Western audience, often through the lens of African American experiences. In contrast, Nollywood provides an array of representations grounded in everyday African realities, avoiding the exoticization that often accompanies Western portrayals. This difference highlights the tension between ­Western media’s tendency to commodify African culture for global consumption and Nollywood’s ­commitment to telling authentic African stories. While both industries are instrumental in shaping African identity, Nollywood’s narratives are more reflective of the continent’s complexity and diversity, offering a much-needed counterbalance to Hollywood’s broader, sometimes reductive, portrayals.^49,50 Global media representation significantly influences cultural identity formation by shaping both individual and collective perceptions. As media consumption continues to grow globally, it plays a crucial role in either reinforcing or dismantling stereotypes, as well as creating narratives that can unite or divide cultures. The case studies examined reveal both the power and limitations of media representation in fostering understanding across different communities.

Conclusion

This analysis has elucidated the profound ways in which media representation molds cultural identity and intercultural relations. Across different platforms and cultures, media not only reflects but also actively constructs societal norms and identities, influencing how individuals and communities perceive themselves and others. From films that redefine minority portrayals to advertisements that perpetuate stereotypes, the role of media is pivotal in shaping cultural dialogs and societal values. Looking ahead, the landscape of media representation is set to evolve further with technological ­advancements and increased global interaction. It is anticipated that media will continue to play a crucial role in the globalization of culture, potentially offering more inclusive and diverse portrayals that reflect the multifaceted nature of society. To foster a more equitable media landscape, it is crucial for producers, policymakers, and educators to collaborate on strategies that enhance cultural ­representation. This includes advocating for diversity in media production, supporting educational programs that promote media literacy, and creating policies that encourage fair and accurate representations. Such efforts are essential not only for enriching the media’s cultural content but also for empowering viewers to engage critically with the media they consume, paving the way for a more inclusive cultural discourse.

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Cite this article as:
Wheatley MC. Media Representation and Cultural Identity. Premier Journal of Social Science 2024;1:100004

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