Nanotechnology in Diabetology: Future Insight for Diagnosis and Management

Muhammad Imran Qadir and Sidra Zafar
Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Correspondence to: Muhammad Imran Qadir, mrimranqadir@hotmail.com

DOI: https://doi.org/10.70389/PJBS.100013

Additional information

• Ethical approval: N/a
• Consent: N/a
• Funding: No industry funding
• Conflicts of interest: N/a
• Author contribution: Muhammad Imran Qadir and Sidra Zafar – Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, review and editing
• Guarantor: Muhammad Imran Qadir
• Provenance and peer-review: Unsolicited and externally peer-reviewed
• Data availability statement: N/a

Keywords: Nanomedicine, Glucose nanosensors, Insulin delivery, Artificial pancreas, Quantum dots.

Peer Review
Received: 3 June 2025
Last revised: 11 August 2025
Accepted: 5 October 2025
Version accepted: 5
Published: 27 October 2025

Plain Language Summary Infographic

Introduction

Diabetes mellitus as known to be “diabetes”, is characterized by the hampered ability of the pancreas to manage blood glucose absorption. Both traditional medicine and synthetic drugs are utilized by prevailing management of diabetes. Many oral hypoglycemic agents, available these days, presents adverse effects. Utilization of insulin injections presents increased problems encompassing abnormalities at site of injection, allergies and weight gain. However, hypoglycemia still holds to be most problematic outcome of insulin, which in cases may be life hazardous.¹ Diabetes may be classifying to Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes (Type 1 or insulin dependent diabetes, Type 2 or non-insulin dependent diabetes) and Gestational diabetes and secondary diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes mellitus encompass hampering of insulin-producing beta cells of islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, thereby causing insulin deficiency. T-cell mediated autoimmune attack majorly cause beta cell loss is Type 1 diabetes in as in juvenile diabetes. Type 2 diabetes mellitus due to reduced sensitivity of insulin/insulin resistance combined with hampered secretions of insulin. The hampered response of body tissues towards insulin certainly includes cell membrane-insulin receptors. Gestational diabetes is found to be in women with no previous positive diagnosis towards diabetes, who show increased sugar levels during pregnancy. No particular cause was found for it but it’s presumed that during pregnancy, produced hormones reduce woman’s sensitivity towards insulin, leading to elevated sugar levels in blood.

Overcoming these facts presenting problems, there is an elevated interest to overcome these hindrances by controlling diabetes using nanotechnology along with potential benefits.² Nanoscale science focuses on the characteristics, occurrence and substance reactions varying between 1 to 100 nm in size. Substances below 10 nm size, and more than 5 nm, have characteristics that differ noticeably with characteristics of larger particles. Nanotechnology encompasses nanoparticle design, functionalization and construction, and applications in humans, accomplished by controlling their shape and size, which goes less than 100 nm on general. Nano-medicines flourish many potential applications especially with oral delivery of drug. For example, various disease-related medicines are encapsulated in nano-medicines to enhance their bioactivity and bioavailability and better targeted drug delivery. The miniaturized particles used in nano-medicine are potentially useful, offer appropriate mobility and can encapsulate insulin and other peptide drug.³

Nanoscience specially to medicine related problems, is “nano-medicine”. Nano-medicine is a fusion of nanotechnology with medicine for better human health approaches. The scale of nano-medicine is usually ‘between atoms, with size approx. 0.1 nm, and bacteria in range of 1000 to 10000 nm or human WBC (approx. 10000 nm)’. Variety of innovative nanoparticles and nanomaterials are being designed for use in medicinal applications, involving nano-films and nanoparticles, capsules with nanotubes, nano-substances and fullerenes (complex molecules). Nano-medicine in field addresses i) nano-metrology or measurement ii) therapy. Here, nano-metrology encompasses measurement of minute amounts of analyte or utilization of miniature devices to find sensor amounts present in a tissue/cell. “Therapy” deals with construction & rectification of particles at nano level, that presents remedies. Effectively, it’s crucial to overview different problems in care of diabetes and potential use of nano-medicine to make solutions relative to hardships faced by prevailing diabetic therapies.

Methodology

To ensure transparency, rigor, and reproducibility in the reporting of our systematic review, we adopted guidelines aligned with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework. This approach guided the development of our research question, the systematic search strategy, study selection process, data extraction, and synthesis of results. By adhering to these structured reporting standards, we aimed to enhance the clarity, completeness, and methodological soundness of our review, thereby supporting critical appraisal and facilitating replication by future researchers. A completed PRISMA-style checklist is included in the supplementary materials to provide detailed documentation of our methods. PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar data bases were searched. A combination of Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and free-text terms was used. The key terms included: “Diabetes”, “nanotechnology”, “treatment”, “management”, “intervention”, “outcome” or “efficacy”.

Date Range

Articles published between July 1, 2010, and Jun 30, 2025, were included. This range was selected to ensure the inclusion of the recent, relevant, and evidence-based research while avoiding outdated practices.

Diabetes Burden Statistics

The latest IDF (International Diabetes Federation) data indicates that 589 million adults worldwide have diabetes, and this number is projected to reach 853 million by 2050. The IDF also reports that 4 in 5 adults with diabetes live in low- and middle-income countries. In 2024, diabetes caused 3.4 million deaths globally.4 The rising prevalence not only poses serious health risks—such as cardiovascular disease, kidney failure, and vision loss—but also places a substantial economic strain on individuals and healthcare infrastructures worldwide. Early intervention, improved access to care, and innovations like closed-loop insulin delivery systems are critical to managing this escalating public health challenge.

Nano-Medicine Approaches

Nano-medicine is an ensuring field exploits nanotechnology for the diagnostic purposes and improved diabetic treatments (Figure 1, Table 1). We presume that nanoparticles can reduce the hazardous effects relative to traditional therapies. Approaches that we might use include drug release, better passive permeability, targeting particular tissue surface of cell but using ligands and preventing drugs from degradation via enzymes. Control over the basic cell nanostructures and the matrix (extracellular) is necessitated by potential fulfillment of aims of regenerative medicine.5

Small size, on the levels of nanometers, accounts as advantage of nanotechnology, permitting target tissues or particular sites in body to be accessed easily. Owing to small size of nanoparticles, affected by quantum effects, with physicochemical properties change, comprising of strength, electrical conductivity, color and reactivity, researchers pay much interest to nano-medicine. For example, carbon, being smoothly soft like graphite when transformed into nanotubes (approx. 1.5 nm diameter) flexible, durable, elastic and stronger than steel. Fluoresce, is also observed during conduction of electricity, with no resistance.6 Nanotechnology & nano-medicine’s applications, relative to diabetes are still in infancy period. For construction of various biomaterials, attempts are being made in nano-medicine area to make new techniques, crucial for production of biomaterials, which can be used at various stages of disease. However, translation of techniques reaching clinical use is still not that much in implication. In nut shell, monitoring blood sugar level and delivery systems for insulin are two improvements in reference to diabetes treatment, facilitated by nanotechnology.7

Table 1: Nano-medicine platforms vs. Patient profiles in diabetes.
Nano-medicine Platform	Best Suited Patient Profile	Diabetes Type	Use Case/Benefit
Lipid-based nanoparticles (liposomes)	Elderly patients with polypharmacy; those needing slow, steady drug release	Type 2	Improved bioavailability of oral antidiabetic drugs; reduced dosing frequency
Polymeric nanoparticles (PLGA, chitosan)	Pediatric or adolescent patients needing safer insulin delivery with fewer side effects	Type 1 or 2	Controlled insulin release; less invasive, potential for oral/patch-based delivery
Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)	Patients with inflammatory complications (e.g., diabetic wounds or nephropathy)	Type 1 or 2	Anti-inflammatory and diagnostic potential; localized drug delivery
Silica nanoparticles	Tech-savvy adult patients with glucose monitoring challenges	Type 1	Glucose-responsive insulin delivery systems (smart insulin release)
Dendrimers	Young adults with unstable glycemic profiles; precision therapy candidates	Type 1	High drug-loading capacity; targeted, programmable insulin or gene therapy delivery
Carbon nanotubes / graphene oxide	Advanced cases with insulin resistance or pancreatic beta-cell regeneration trials	Type 2	Supports tissue engineering, biosensing, and gene delivery research
Microneedle patches (nano-enabled)	Needle-averse patients (children, elderly); low adherence to injections	Type 1 or 2	Pain-free, self-administered insulin delivery; enhanced compliance
Magnetic nanoparticles	Patients requiring targeted imaging or dual diagnostic–therapeutic monitoring	Type 1 or 2	Smart, real-time imaging + drug release for complications like retinopathy

Nanoparticles for Insulin Delivery

Different nanoparticles currently overviewed for use as drug delivery systems are:⁸

• Ceramic nanoparticles
• Polymeric biodegradable nanoparticles including nano-capsules and nano-spheres
• Dendrimer
• Polymeric micelles
• Liposomes

Blood Glucose Monitoring

Finger-prick method, the most to date and commonly used method to check on glucose levels. As in humans, fingers are pricked by sharp needle to collect blood in a capillary tube for self-check on blood glucose. However, there may be several difficulties, which has caused scientists to pay attention to produce innovative smart, miniaturized devices (diagnostic) for dealing with diabetes which may be effective, easy, accurate, and simple in usage, providing consistent results. On these approaches, various nanotech marvels have been designed i.e. smart tattoos, nanotubes, the layer-by-layer technique, carbon and quantum dots (Table 2).⁹

Table 2: Nano-platforms used in diabetes management.
Nano-Platform	Typical Particle Size (nm)	Encapsulation Efficiency (%)	Clinical Phase	Regulatory Status	Estimated Cost per Dose (USD)
Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)	1–100	60–85	Preclinical / Early Clinical	Not FDA Approved	$20–50
Quantum Dots (QDs)	2–10	50–75	Preclinical	Not FDA Approved	$30–100+ (depends on material)
Lipid Nanoparticles (LNPs)	80–200	70–95	Phase II / III	Some FDA-approved for other uses	$10–30
Polymeric Nanoparticles	100–300	60–90	Phase I / II	Investigational	$15–40
Smart Tattoos (Nano-Ink based)	N/A (sensor integrated at surface)	N/A (non-drug delivery)	Preclinical / Prototype	Not FDA Approved	$50–150 (device cost)
Silica Nanoparticles	50–150	65–90	Preclinical	Not FDA Approved	$20–60
Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)	1–100	55–80	Preclinical	Not FDA Approved	$50–120

Smart Tattoos

Smart tattoos are an emerging integration of nanobiotechnology and wearable monitoring of health, providing a new, non-surgical means to monitor and control chronic diseases like diabetes. Initially imagined in the early 2000s, smart tattoos have since matured from simple biosensing principles to complex platforms for real-time monitoring of physiological processes. These devices usually incorporate nanoscale sensors, responsive ink, and biocompatible material implanted into the skin as tattoo-like patterns that can sense and visually display biomarker variations like blood glucose. As a potential substitute for existing glucose monitoring methods in diabetes, smart tattoos have the potential to provide continuous monitoring without causing constant finger pricks or implanted devices. Improvements in nanomaterials—graphene, quantum dots, and nanowires, for example—have increased the sensitivity and specificity of such tattoos to accurately detect glucose in interstitial fluid. Hence, smart tattoos are increasingly being considered as a revolutionary device in personalized medicine and chronic disease management, especially in the case of diabetes.^10–12

For better in vivo glucose check, smart tattoos are effaceable. They have fluorescence-based nano-sensors which are responsive towards glucose (Figure 2). The sensors are skin incorporated, and the device enters from outside body, so non-invasive monitoring can be performed. In this technique, fluorescence is utilized by sensors to detect changes of analyte concentrations. It holds benefits in conventional methods as in electrochemical electrode implantation. Moreover, it is not prone towards electroactive tissue meddling, that can cause nonuniformity in sensors. Specifically, NIR light (wavelength approx. 60 nm) can invade few centimeters in tissue, in cases even when we implant sensor in body, allowing non- invasive measures from body exterior.¹³

Multiple artificially designed glucose receptors which cause molecule of glucose into variants in fluorescence, comprising enzymes (hexokinase), bacterial binding proteins and boronic acid derivatives can be engineered as nano-sensors. Glucose assay where concanavalin A (plant lectin) is covalently labelled with NIR protein (allophycocyanin)-the donor and dextran, labelled by non-fluorescent dye (acceptor) malachite green is demonstrated. Relocation of dextran through Con A occurs by addition of glucose thereby reducing energy transfer of fluorescence resonance between acceptor and donor, along with accurate fluorescence lifetime.¹⁴

Carbon Nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are a highly potent nanomaterial in nanotechnology with high potential for enhancing diabetes diagnosis and treatment. They were discovered in the early 1990s and are rolled-up graphene sheets that form cylindrical nanostructures with remarkable electrical, mechanical, and chemical properties. Their special features—high surface area, high conductivity, and strong biocompatibility—have rendered them suitable candidates for the creation of sensitive biosensors and drug delivery systems.^8,11,15

 In diabetes, CNTs have been widely investigated for applications in glucose sensing, making it possible to devise highly sensitive, real-time monitoring devices that identify glucose concentration in blood, sweat, or interstitial fluid. Their capability of being functionalized with enzymes, antibodies, or other biomolecules has also resulted in the creation of sophisticated electrochemical sensors that are highly specific and possess very low detection limits. During the last twenty years, CNT-based technologies have been instrumental in propelling non-invasive and continuous glucose monitoring technologies to the foreground as a key pillar of next-generation nanotechnological treatments for diabetes.^16–20

The cylindrical array like that rolled sheets of graphite in container are called nanotubes. Such nanotubes are either single-walled or multi-walled. A flat sheet consists of atoms of carbon and then rolled in small tubular forms called microphysiometer which is designed to use with multi-walled carbon nanotubes. These tubes contain sensors that help in detection of electrons that are produced by oxidation of insulin in presence of glucose, this in turn helps in detection of insulin levels. More current is produced in sensor in the presence of more insulin and vice versa, thus help in detection of insulin.²¹

Quantum Dots

Quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductor nanocrystals that have attracted much interest in nanotechnology for their distinctive size-tunable fluorescence and high photostability, among other optical and electronic properties. Initially synthesized in the 1980s, QDs have matured from basic scientific curiosities to efficient instruments for biomedical applications, such as diagnostics and biosensing. In diabetes, QDs have been especially promising for the creation of very sensitive and selective glucose sensors. Their capacity to be functionalized by biological molecules, including glucose oxidase, enables sensitive detection of glucose via fluorescence-based processes. In contrast to conventional fluorescent dyes, QDs provide enhanced brightness and photobleaching resistance, making them suitable for applications requiring long-term monitoring. Their nanoscale dimensions also facilitate integration in wearable and implantable devices for real-time glucose monitoring. With advancing research, quantum dots are now an integral part of new nanotechnological approaches designed to enhance early detection, monitoring, and patient-tailored management of diabetes.^{22,23,7,24–27}

Quantum Dots (QDs) are are round in shape and are about 2–10 nm in size. QDs consist of cadmium selenide on the top of which there is a layer of zinc sulfide which improves the optical capability and a cap to improve solubility. In various biomedical fields QDs are used due to their diagnostic and therapeutic properties. They have uniquely designed molecules with fluorescent probe for image targeting. QDs have many good characters like constant and high quantum yield and have large capacity.²⁸

Nanomedicine in Diabetes Management

For the control of diabetes, a lot of medicines are available. One of the most extensively used drugs for the control of sugar level is insulin. However, in some experiments the transport of insulin through subcutaneous tissue fails to manage the homeostasis of glucose. Because insulin is transported in blood through blood flow which is a physiological route instead of direct transport during circulation. There is challenge for nanotechnology based study to devise a system by which drugs can safely b transferred to the body.²⁹

Improved Insulin Delivery

Delivery of insulin is a major problem for the management of sugar level in blood. Due to its benefits many scientists suggested its oral dose. However, the bioavailability is very less in case of oral insulin due to loss of its concentrations while passing thorough gastrointestinal tract as well as its permeability is also low for passing through biological membrane.³⁰

Barriers to the Oral Delivery of Insulin

In oral insulin the most challenging problem is the low bioavailability as gastrointestinal tract is the first barrier for protection against foreign bodies. The medicines which are given through oral rout that are consist of protein contents are often hydrolyzed by enzymatic and chemical reactions. Some barriers for absorption of proteins in intestine the movement of such drugs is very low in intestine. Therefore, a clear knowledge of all functions and structure of such barriers is important for insulin delivery.³¹ In case of oral delivery of insulin chemical and enzymatic processes play an important role. Besides this other barrier which are also chemical in nature e.g. pH which is different in different areas of GI tract is another challenge for delivery of insulin. The oral route of insulin has striking change in pHs from stomach to intestine which also cause some hydrolytic and other changes in drug and result in loss of its bioavailability. Enzymatic reactions also act as barrier like GI proteases causes breakdown of proteins before they are converted into smaller peptide subunits. Therefore, most protein containing drugs are susceptible to such proteases.³²

Microspheres for Insulin Delivery

Microsphere is used for improved delivery of oral insulin due to the nature of microsphere they both are the inhibitors for proteases as well as permeation enhancers. Microspheres protect encapsulated insulin from protease by acting as inhibitor. In addition, microspheres also improve the absorption capacity by providing the alternative passage across the membrane.³³

Nanoshells and Magnetic Nanoprobes (Insulin)

The magnetic nature of nano-shells and nano-probes is used for the treatment of diabetes efficiently. Injection of insulin is replaced by warming a portion of skin with a pen sized laser and then nano-shell are applied on that part. The heating process helps in release of polymer having insulin. This type of assembly remains embedded in body for months. The procedure is less painful than injection. According to some experiments the use of magnetic nano-probes as super-magnetic iron oxide which also contain some fluorescence material which produce light and imaging can be detected. Such probes are used to produce image of islet cell which are inflamed due to diabetes type 1. These particles are less toxic and less immunogenic so they give the efficient result even if they remain in body for longer times.³⁴

Artificial Pancreas

The outset of artificial pancreas is achievable and consists of glucose monitoring sensor along with insulin fusion pump and a computer. Pancreatic cells are separated from animals are attached with small silicon boxes and used for control of blood glucose level. Pore size is kept large so that molecules of insulin and glucose can pass but not larger enough that other molecules of immune system should not cross the barrier.³⁵ These boxes are fixed below the skin of patients. Currently, scientists are figuring out such nano-robots that contain insulin inside the and glucose level is monitored on the surface of the apparatus. When sensor indicates the increase in glucose level the insulin is released. However, construction of such types of nano-robots is still in progress. It is expected that in future such type of nano-robots will provide permanent solution of diabetes.³⁶

Closed-Loop Artificial-Pancreas Trials

Closed-loop artificial pancreas trials have demonstrated significant advancements in the management of type 1 diabetes, particularly in improving blood glucose control and reducing patient burden. These trials, involving both pediatric and adult populations, evaluate systems that automatically adjust insulin delivery based on continuous glucose monitoring. Notably, trials like the NIH-supported Pediatric Artificial Pancreas (PEDAP) study and the iDCL multicenter trial have shown that hybrid closed-loop systems can increase time in the target glucose range by up to 12%—equating to several additional hours of optimal glucose control daily—while also reducing hypoglycemia risk. More advanced research is exploring fully closed-loop and bi-hormonal systems, which aim to eliminate the need for user input and further mimic pancreatic function. Ongoing simulation studies and real-world pilot programs, including national rollouts in the UK, signal a growing shift toward widespread adoption of this technology in routine diabetes care.³⁷

Microneedle Patch for Diabetes

Microneedle patches represent a promising innovation in diabetes management, offering a minimally invasive, pain-free alternative to traditional insulin injections. These patches consist of tiny, dissolvable or solid microneedles that painlessly penetrate the outer layer of the skin to deliver insulin or other antidiabetic drugs directly into the bloodstream. Designed for ease of use, especially among children, elderly patients, or those with needle anxiety, microneedle systems improve treatment adherence and reduce the risk of infection associated with repeated injections. Some advanced microneedle patches are also being developed with glucose-responsive nanoparticles, enabling smart, on-demand insulin release based on real-time blood glucose levels. This approach not only simplifies therapy but also offers tighter glycemic control, paving the way for more user-friendly and effective diabetes care.³⁸

Nanotechnology Bring Relief to Diabetics

Several experiments are in progress for improvement and implementation of new techniques in treatment of diabetes. Due to increase in population more resources are required to keep life going on for this purpose nanotechnology will play an important role. With this new technology, diabetics can be completely curable in future. Some devices are so manageable that they can manage the blood glucose level at the time of need without the use of medicines and insulin. So diabetic patients can lead a normal life. It also helps the patient to feel comfortable both mentally and physically and they can play their role in their lives without any restriction due to diabetes.²⁸

Conclusion

This review discusses the nano-technological treatments of diabetes. Nano-medicines are extensively being used for diagnostic and treatment of diabetes. However, nano-medicines are used for treatment of different diseases extensively but still it’s in the beginning phase of practice. If problems regarding nano-medicine and nanotechnology are overcome, then it becomes best for diabetes in future and will replace the conventional methods. The invention of nanorobots to diagnose and treat diabetes will offer further improvements in the current existing diabetic treatments.

Future Outlook

As nanotechnology advances in diabetes management, addressing ethical, safety, and access concerns—particularly in resource-limited settings—becomes increasingly critical. While nano-enabled diagnostics and drug delivery systems offer precision and efficiency, their long-term safety, potential toxicity, and environmental impact remain areas of concern, especially where regulatory frameworks are weak or underdeveloped. Ethically, there is a risk of widening health disparities if these innovations are accessible only to affluent populations. Ensuring equitable access requires strategies to reduce production costs, support local manufacturing, and foster inclusive healthcare policies. Collaborative global efforts must prioritize affordability, cultural sensitivity, and sustainable deployment to ensure that the benefits of nanotechnology reach the populations that need them most.

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Cite this article as:
Qadir MI and Zafar S. Nanotechnology in Diabetology: Future Insight for Diagnosis and Management. Premier Journal of Biomedical Science 2026;6:100013

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